We really don't know for sure but several possible explanations have been tested. An early theory suggested that when the moon is lower in the sky, the curved atmosphere magnifies the light from the moon just like images are expanded by a magnifying glass.

The argument is very appealing when you imagine the path of light coming through the atmosphere at the horizon compared with the straight path from above. However, when we compare the size of the image of the moon on the horizon with the image above us we find no difference. You can test this yourself by measuring the moon's size with your finger at arms length.

It may be that the reason we see the moon as larger on the horizon is that the horizon moon looks farther away because other objects such as trees and houses block its view. Our visual system seems to adjust our perception of size to compensate for distance. For example, if you looked at your Pocono Record from across the room you wouldn't see it as a miniature paper even thou the image was smaller than the image you see now. Just as you think of the newspaper as being larger than its image, you increase your perception of the size of the moon. While several alternative explanations exist, most believe that the moon illusion occurs as a result of natural adjustments our visual systems make in the everyday analysis of what we see.

We see the moon in different ways but do the moon and other celestial bodies have an influence on our behavior. In an upcoming story we will examine whether astrologers can predict our behavior.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology with interests and expertise in Cognitive Processes.

February 7, 2002
Why do people from different places communicate so differently?
By Glenn Geiser-Getz

Human communication develops over time in response to a variety of social and nonsocial forces. Climate, religion, literature, values, individual choice, and other elements contribute to the many differences observable in human affairs. Intercultural communication, the study of interpersonal interactions between people of different traditions, examines these forces.

Nonverbal communication customs sometimes develop in response to life experience. People used to living in large apartment buildings and populous cities may not find personal space very important. While in Russia last year, I was surprised to find that strangers would stand very close to me regardless of the situation. Americans, myself included, generally value a larger personal space around them.

Greeting rituals also differ depending upon one’s culture. While the handshake is a popular salutation in the West, people from other traditions may bow or kiss each other on the cheeks. When people walk together in some cultures it is not unusual for them to hold hands, regardless of gender. This gesture does not necessarily imply romantic involvement; it is usually a simple expression of friendship and a comfortable way to walk the same path.

Such realities illustrate that nonverbal behaviors express, among other things, a culture’s assumptions about human relationships. Interestingly, people from different traditions sometimes interpret the same symbol (say, a waved hand) to mean something quite different (a greeting, a farewell, a dismissal). This inevitably generates difficulties for unsuspecting travelers who treat everyone the same, then assume their communications will be clearly understood. It is crucial to understand that people from other traditions often find our communication as strange as we do theirs. There is no one correct way to express human thoughts and ideas; in fact, the differences around us should be treasured. They make life more interesting.

Glenn Geiser-Getz is an Associate Professor of Communication Studies at ESU. He recently returned from teaching journalism classes in Russia on a Fulbright Fellowship from the United States Department of State. His research interests include media studies, presidential rhetoric, and intercultural communication.

February 14, 2002
Do children become violent from watching violent TV shows?
By Sussie Eshun

This is an old debate, which is frequently revisited. Those who say yes, typically base their arguments on studies that conclude that children who are exposed to TV violence become less sensitive to others' pain, fearful of the world, and more likely to be aggressive toward others. However, others (mostly broadcasters) still argue that more evidence is needed.

It seems like this is a debatable topic, but test yourself as an adult first: Do you develop more feelings of aggression, vengefulness, and/or anger while watching a movie (especially when it seems like the bad guys are winning)? You probably answered yes. But, do you necessarily act aggressively after that? You probably answered No.

Kids are terrific at imitating other people's behaviors. However, they may not make good decisions about the appropriateness of these violent behaviors. In as much as humans are born with an aggressive impulse, we (adults) make decisions about whether or not to act it out. The skill that needs development and fine-tuning in our kids is their conscience and ability to make good judgments. Adult supervision is necessary when kids are watching TV for three reasons:
1. To limit the amount and types of TV shows they watch.
2. To help them separate fantasy from reality.
3. To guide them in making good judgments (at a very basic level).

Dr. Sussie Eshun is an Associate Professor of Psychology at ESU whose expertise is in the areas of mental health, behavior modification, and cross-cultural research.

February 21, 2002
Will exercise help me loose weight?
By Gregory Dwyer

Many of us are getting fatter and most of us would like to know how to loose some of those extra pounds. Your current body weight is the net balance of energy intake (food) and energy expenditure (physical activity). Therefore, to reduce body weight you must either decrease energy intake, increase energy expenditure, or both. The most successful long-term weight loss programs have combined a decrease in energy intake (i.e., sensible diet) with an increase in energy expenditure (i.e., physical activity).

Increasing your physical activity is the principle means of increasing energy expenditure (along with a reduction in energy intake). This increase in physical activity can and should be brought about by a general increase in daily physical activities and a regular schedule of structured exercise. One pound of fat contains 3500 kilocalories (kcal) of energy. A reduction of one pound of fat per week would require creating a caloric deficit in your body of 500 kcal per day. A typical exerciser might work out for 40 min a day, four days a week. That might burn enough calories to eliminate 1/3 of a pound (burn about 300 kcal per session). Increasing daily activities by doing more walking (up-stairs, to run errands, after meals), doing more manual chores, and participating in some active recreational pursuits can add another 700-2100 kcal of expenditure per week which might translate into another 1/4 to 2/3 of a pound. Unfortunately, increasing physical activity cannot lead to rapid weight loss. However, it is important to understand that long-term weight loss and maintenance is improved when body weight is decreased slowly (1-2 pounds per week). Successful weight loss requires permanent changes in your lifestyle (both activity and diet). These changes need not be drastic, however, a lifelong commitment is necessary.

Dr. Gregory Dwyer is a clinical exercise physiologist in the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science at East Stroudsburg University.

February 28, 2002
Is it harder for older people to learn?
By Joe Miele

My personal observations, and more importantly, psychological research, have found little truth to the often-used expression, “you can’t teach an old dog new tricks.” The expression falsely suggests that is difficult or impossible for older people to learn new things.

However, with new opportunities to learn, many seniors do just that. For example, my father recently learned the basics of golf and how to use a personal computer. While not an expert, he has learned quite a bit in two years.
My father’s case is not unusual. Several seniors have enrolled in my classes over the years and proved to be quite capable learners. During the 1990’s one in seven adults, age 65 and older, enrolled in classes of some sort, ranging from the practical arts to those leading to advanced college degrees. Generally, more than 200,000 adults age 55 and older enroll in an Elderhostel program. Sponsored by over 2000 colleges and universities in the U.S. and Canada, seniors live on campus for a week or two and take classes on a variety of subjects.

Studies have revealed that older people develop a greater appreciation of nature and artistic experiences. Seniors often express their appreciation in the form of gardening, bird watching, pottery, painting or playing musical instruments.

The rich depth of a lifetime experience enhances some skills. For example, the elderly like to tell stories, often centering on others, such as family members, coworkers, or fellow soldiers. Researchers have learned that stories told by seniors are more interesting than similar stories told by younger people, perhaps because older people have more time, more experiences and more practice.

Now, if only my father would learn how to use an ATM card…

Joseph L. Miele is an Associate Professor of Psychology with interests in learning and physiological psychology.

March 7, 2002
Why are some reactions slow, such as iron rusting, while
others are fast, such as explosives detonating?
By Michael Doherty

A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of the atoms involved. In order for a change to occur, the right atoms have to collide, with the right orientation, and with a high enough speed to break the old bonds and form the new ones.

Reactions are faster if the reacting atoms can meet more easily or frequently. When a log or a pool of oil burns combustion is slower because it can only take place where the oxygen from the air meets the surface of the fuel. If a solid is ground up, or a liquid sprayed into a mist, it has a larger surface area, and burns faster. If the fuel is completely vaporized, it can burn with explosive swiftness once ignited. This is why automobile engines use fuel injectors and why the dust created in a mill can explode.

In solid explosive materials such as ammonium nitrate, the fuel (ammonium) and oxidant (nitrate) are chemically compounded with one another right in the same crystal. The reaction doesn’t have to wait for air to diffuse in, so it reacts very quickly.

Temperature also plays a role in the speed of a reaction. When substances are hotter, their atoms or molecules move faster. They collide faster, too, which leads to more reaction. If this releases energy and further heats the remaining reactants, the whole process speeds up. Cold coal doesn’t burn, but hot coal does.

Concentration is another factor. As you point out, iron rusts slowly in air, which is about 20% oxygen. But if you thrust hot steel wool into 100% pure oxygen gas, it burns as rapidly and brightly as fireworks. This is why it is very dangerous to smoke in a hospital around patients who are being given oxygen. A spark could set off rapid uncontrollable fires.

Michael Doherty is a Professor of Chemistry whose professional interests are in chemical instrumentation, environmental chemistry, and instructional computing.

March 14, 2002
What is so special about poetry?
By Nancy VanArsdale

Through its symbolism, poetry can weave a richly detailed image. For example, Robert Frost's "The Span of Life" is a couplet within the longer work entitled "Ten Mills." Its two lines state: "The old dog barks backward without getting up / I can remember when he was a pup." These 16 words are worth many more.

The voice of the Poem, the "I" watches his aged canine resting on the floor, talking in his sleep, so to speak. The "backward" bark is a muffled reaction, perhaps to an imagined stranger or creature in a dream. The dog's sleep is deep, and he, like many old dogs, spends much of his day doing very little. The owner recalls the active puppy from a decade ago. The awkward meter of line one conveys the message of the aging process, with an odd eleven syllables. Five stressed words in a row slow the reader down: "old dog barks backwards." The next line consists of the more typical ten syllables. In effect, the first line is slow and cumbersome, like the old dog, while the second line is lively and rhythmic--in fluid motion like an active pup.

The human "I" of this poem matters even more than the animal. How is the Speaker of the poem reflecting on his own life-span, his own aging process, his own loss of energy as he ponders his pet's existence? Is he too barking backward with his attempts to communicate as an older man? This poem was published in the 1936 volume A Further Range. Although the book earned Frost a Pulitzer Prize, it was much derided at the time by literary critics who suggested Frost had lost his poetic powers. How ironic is that?

Nancy VanArsdale is Professor and Chair of the English Department. Her literary interests include F. Scott Fitzgerald, Edith Wharton, and old dogs in poetry.

March 21, 2002
Why do battered women stay in abusive relationships?
By Mollie Whalen

In order to understand or explain another person’s behavior, people make attributions about causes for those behaviors. However, we often distort attributions about our behavior and the behavior of others.

When attempting to explain someone else’s behavior, people often overestimate person-centered explanations (he doesn’t work because he is lazy) and underestimate situational explanations (he’s out of work because the economy took a downturn). Scientists call this the fundamental attribution error. Those who are untrained about domestic violence situations may overestimate person-centered traits in explaining why a woman might stay, suggesting "she’s too dependent," "she can’t think for herself," "she must like the abuse," or that "her love is like an addiction." In other words, they tend to blame the victim, if not for the abuse, then for staying.

Other forms of attribution errors apply when we evaluate our own behavior; we tend to overestimate situational explanations. So if I am a battered woman, I might explain that I stay because "I have no money and no place to go," or "if I leave he’ll kill me." In other words, I explain my behavior by pointing to the situational circumstances. To the extent that I reflect on my feelings, I might describe myself in terms of “fearful” or “hopeless” because of the situation, rather than who I am.

Which explanation is more correct and how can professionals help? Feminist psychologists lean toward understanding each situation from the perspective of the woman who is living in that situation. We then try to assess and address the realities of that situation, explore available options for change, and identify strengths that the woman has, which might enable her to leave if she chooses to do so.

Mollie Whalen is a Professor and Coordinator of Women’s Studies.

March 28, 2002
Are property taxes unjust?
By Merlyn Clarke

While there is probably no such thing as a popular tax, the property tax, in the eyes of some, is the least popular of all taxes. Yet the things paid for from the revenue of the property tax may have the most immediate affect on our lives: law enforcement, community roads, court house offices—and perhaps most significantly—schools, to name just a few.

Why are property taxes so despised? Because for many, the bill for the entire year comes all at once, and is a shocker. (Imagine having to pay utility bills or the mortgage in this fashion.) In the case of school taxes, some of us do not have children in the public schools, so why should we have to pay? Then there's the issue of uneven assessments. New construction always takes a hit because it is assessed at today’s prices, whereas older properties are taxed on evaluations that may have been set years ago. Finally, of all taxes, property taxes go up with the most regularity.

For these and other reasons, many are calling for “tax reform,” usually a euphemism for replacing the property tax with some alternative. Property taxes do, however, have some redeeming qualities. Here are a few. For one thing, property taxes are progressive; there is a high correlation between a person’s income and the amount of property one owns. Secondly, unlike income taxes where loopholes abound, it’s almost impossible to avoid/evade property taxes. Third, revenues from property taxes are predictable, allowing municipalities and school districts to budget efficiently. Finally, property taxes strengthen local control. Virtually all other tax alternatives place Harrisburg in control of the revenue, thus putting local schools and municipalities at the mercy of Harrisburg politics.

Merlyn Clarke is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Political Science Department.

April 4, 2002
Are nutritional supplements and herbal remedies effective for weight loss, increased energy, and greater strength?
By Shala Davis

Recent research from the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science at East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania showed 42% of regional collegiate athletes and 29% of the collegiate student-body reported regular use of nutritional supplements (e.g., Creatine) and herbal remedies (e.g., Ginseng). Are these supplements safe and effective?

Research suggests most nutritional supplements have limited if any effectiveness. Supplements that demonstrate benefits often are prescribed by manufacturers at significantly higher dosages than scientific research recommends. Additionally, the safety and purity of the nutritional supplement warrants caution. The Food & Drug Administration does not regulate the nutritional supplement industry thereby placing the consumer in a “buyer beware” situation.

Respondents to our survey said they use supplements and herbal remedies to help achieve rapid results. Weight loss, enhanced muscular strength, and more energy are top priorities irrespective of age and gender. If the young and able bodied need help where does that leave the rest of us?

We are all in the same place…… To achieve and maintain weight loss, greater strength and enhanced energy two rules of thumb apply: 1) engage in regular exercise (most days of the week for 30 + minutes), and 2) eat a balanced and varied diet rich with whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Maybe your bathroom scale won’t drop 10 pounds in a week (as advertised by some nutritional supplement manufacturers), but you have a greater chance of keeping those ten pounds off. Perseverance, not a “magic bullet” is the answer. Best of luck.

Shala E. Davis is an Associate Professor in the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science at East Stroudsburg University. She is the Director of the Student-Athlete Center for Excellence. Her research interests include sport nutrition, weight loss, and hydration.

April 11, 2002
Will he go Nucular on me?
By Michael Liberman

With all of his current popularity, President George W. Bush was ridiculed when in his State of the Union address to the Congress he pronounced "nuclear" as "nucular." Why does President Bush, as well as millions of others, pronounce the word in that way? And why do many people find fault with that way of pronouncing it?

Say "nuclear" - the preferred "Standard American English" way of saying it. You move from the "k" sound of the "c" directly to the "l" sound, without making any intervening vowel sound. The back of your tongue moves away from the back of your palate, with air being released in a small explosion in the "c" sound. This is followed by the tip of your tongue touching the ridge just behind the upper teeth and the air released from the sides of the tongue in the "l" sound. This athletic behavior on the part of the tongue is really quite difficult, like a gymnast in the floor exercises going without transition from front somersaults to a handstand.

Now try "nucular." You will find that the movement from the "c" to the "l" sound is easier by a vowel transition, allowing the tip of the tongue to take some time to reach what is called the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth.

So here's why President Bush pronounces the word as he does: it is easier. And is that the reason to condemn his pronunciation? It is if our goal is to keep speech as difficult as possible. But in fact our natural tendency, like the way rivers find their natural courses through terrain, is to seek the easiest way to do things, in speech as in all else.

Michael Liberman is Professor of English and teaches the History of the English Language.

April 18, 2002
How can I become a better sports parent?
By Tony Drago

Several years ago I was coaching an intramural under 8 coeducational soccer team. This was my first coaching experience and we were in the "championship" game facing a 1-0 deficit following the first half.

I gave an emotional half-time speech; it was the best of Lombardi, Rockney, Douds, and Sheska. Following "the speech," Diana approached me with a certain facial expression that I didn't recognize. My gosh, I thought, motivational speeches really work, she was "in the zone." As I approached Diana for confirmation she said, "Coach, can we pleeeeease get different shirts next year?" To Diana, the most important issue at the time was the shirt - how it fit and looked.

We must understand and appreciate that a young player's priorities are often not the same as a coach's or parent's. Parents should recognize that children might not value winning the same way they do. By setting sights on a championship, children can learn something about setting goals and working toward them, but seeing winning as the only purpose distorts the child's view of the world.

Many other elements of sports participation help prepare children for life. Children learn about cooperation, sportsmanship, time management, emotional control, and a good work ethic even when their team does not win. Parents, (often as well-meaning adults), subtly and, at times, directly pressure their children to win, marginalizing the importance of the other skills and values the child can acquire. The problem can be compounded when parents overreact to "bad calls," decisions of coaches, or errors made by the young players. Much of what children learn develops through imitation of their parent's behavior.

Childhood is a preparation, not a performance. It is vital that parents help children keep a perspective regarding the purpose of sports, maybe even considering the elements of fashion.

Anthony Drago is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Psychology. He is interested in sports psychology and has an active therapy practice in East Stroudsburg.

April 25, 2002
What is a Pow Wow?
By Lesliee Antonette

Throughout Native American history, there have been gatherings where people came to exchange goods, dance in celebration and have a good time. On Saturday April 27, 2002 from 10AM-4PM East Stroudsburg University (ESU) will sponsor the Second Annual Seven Generations Native American Festival. This festival is modeled on a Native American Pow Wow, which means that there will be singing, dancing, drumming and vendor goods. It is a celebration of Native American culture that is open to the public.

No one is certain of the origin of the term “Pow Wow”. Some believe it was invented by Western European settlers who observed similar events. Others believe that the Pow Wow was designed as a means of teaching Western Europeans about Native American culture.

Traditionally, the Pow Wow opens with “Grand Entry”, when all the dancers enter the dance circle for the first time. The Circle is a sacred place and can only be entered by invitation. Many dancers wear regalia to indicate the style of dance in which they specialize, or the Native American nation they represent, or both.

Dancers are preceded into the dance circle by the American flag and flags that represent the Native American Nations and American Prisoners of War. These flags represent the people the dancers honor and are normally carried by veterans of American wars. Many specialized dances are prepared for the Pow Wow. The dancers follow the beat of the drum, and singers who sing songs of honor accompany the drum. Sometimes the dancers will invite visitors to participate in their dances.

Unlike most Pow Wows, the ESU festival will not have a dance competition. However, dancers may come to “warm up” for the competitions that will occur throughout the regular Pow Wow season - May through September. Please join us.

Lesliee Antonette is an Associate Professor of Multicultural American Literature. She is the author of The Rhetoric of Diversity and the Traditions of American Literary Study: Critical Multiculturalism in English. She lectures on Native American literature, history, and culture.

May 2, 2002
How can I make the best of a trip to a casino?
By Bob McMullin

Several years ago, the faculty of the Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management Department of East Stroudsburg University saw increasing employment opportunities for our graduates in the rapidly expanding casino industry. To keep students marketable, we added a class titled "Casino Management."

Students in the course visit and tour several casinos. Tours include rooms, high-roller suites, food and beverage outlets, and other back-of-the-house operations. Students who are 21 can indulge in a game or two of chance.

Our experiences are insightful. Many adults find the casino is an excellent venue to relax and have fun. However, it should be clear that casinos are in business to make money and that they are good at it. If you want to enjoy your visit to the casinos, understand the following:

· Don't go to the casino to make money. All games favor the casino.
· You probably will win (sometimes). Gaming Commissions require pay-outs and it's also good public relations to have a winner go back home and announce that they "Won" or "Beat the Casino." Everyone will bring a gaming story home.
· Don't miss a good bet. All casinos budget comps (complimentary, such as rooms, buffets, and entertainment) to keep gamblers in their favor. Always sign up for the casino club card. Go to the promotions booth and ask about them. Your play will be evaluated so comps can be issued. Even minimal amounts of $50-$100 will be rewarded.
· Know the games. Many casinos offer lessons. If in doubt about a bet on a table game, ask the dealer (they are supposed to help).
· Consider casino play as entertainment. Budget your funds as you would in spending money at a ball game, theatre or concert. Once you reach your spending limit, walk the boardwalk or dine in a restaurant.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Restaurant and Tourism Management. He instructs the Casino Management course at the university.

May 9, 2002
Why are mothers important in our society?
By Sussie Eshun

The word “mother” brings so many memories, both good and bad. It is probably the most recognized word on earth and often the first words uttered by infants. But who is a mother, and what roles does she play in today’s society? The Webster’s Dictionary defines a mother as one who “gives birth to something…the origin or source…one who nurtures,” suggesting that mothers have both biological and/or functional (surrogate) roles. What attributes do you admire about your mum? For me, it is her love and commitment.

Researchers have identified certain functions of mothers that seem to exist across cultures and generations. These include:

· Trust Builder. Mothers serve to foster secure attachment through infancy and life.
· Nurturer. Mothers provide caring and nurturing, which is crucial to a child’s physical, emotional and cognitive development.
· Role Model. Mothers serve as examples for acceptable moral values and behaviors.
· Protector. Mothers are often willing to save their children regardless of danger. They have been found to serve as defenders, gatekeepers, mediators, and interpreters for their children.
· Enabler. Mothers strengthen their children to go through their daily encounters, challenge them to excel, and are there to comfort them in difficult times.

Even in cases where biological mums have been unable to play these roles, there is often a functional mum who willingly steps in, regardless of socioeconomic and cultural factors. As we celebrate Mothers’ Day take time to honor the mother in your life, be it biological or functional. They deserve it. HAPPY MOTHERS’ DAY.

Sussie Eshun is an Associate Professor of Psychology at ESU whose expertise is in mental health, psychological testing, behavior modification, and cross-cultural research. (editor's note: Raised in Ghana by her "mum," Sussie now is mum to two bright and beautiful young girls of her own.)

May 16, 2002
Alyce Strapec of East Stroudsburg asks: “Why do procedures for home-made ice cream require large amounts of rock salt?”
By Michael Doherty

Ice cream is made by chilling sweetened, flavored cream below 5o F. Commercial producers accomplish this with special refrigeration equipment. So do some electrical ice cream makers for home use.

In the traditional method, sweetened cream is frozen by surrounding it with a separate outer container of salt and ice. The salt in this coolant mixture never touches the cream, and thus does not ruin its flavor. But why add salt? When pure ice begins to melt it maintains a temperature of 0oC (32oF). This is not cold enough to freeze the cream. But if enough salt is tumbled with the ice, the coolant mixture holds a temperature of -15oC (5oF) or lower.

This lowering of the coolant's melting point is an example of a “colligative property.” It depends on the concentration of dissolved solute (salt) in the melt water. The greater the concentration of dissolved salt, the lower the melting point.

This same principle applies when we use salt to de-ice winter streets. At 32oF, pure water freezes. But added salt forms a mixture that lowers the freezing point. Melting results.
Dissolved solutes not only lower water’s freezing point, they also raise its boiling point. Salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water. The boiling point elevation is also dependent on concentration. Thus the pinch of salt you use to flavor your spaghetti water only raises the boiling point by a few thousandths of a degree.

Other solutes raise the boiling point as well. Salt is cheap and abundant, but it promotes rust. In automobile engines where rust could cause problems we use water-soluble glycols as automotive antifreeze. In suitable proportions in water, antifreeze both lowers the freezing point and raises the boiling point by tens of degrees, keeping the radiator coolant a liquid over a wider temperature range.

Michael Doherty is a Professor of Chemistry and advisor for students in ESU's secondary education certification program in chemistry. Several websites include information on this topic. Try: http://www.teachnet.com/lesson/science/icecream051999.html.

May 23, 2002
How do they come up with the ratings for the top television shows that are printed in the newspaper, and how are they used?
By Rob McKenzie

Companies sell ratings “books” to radio and TV stations. The biggest company in television is Nielsen, and in radio is Arbitron. Radio and TV stations have to pay for the ratings books, which are published four times a year. The price of a ratings book depends on a station’s market size. A ratings book for Philadelphia costs more than one for Allentown. Ratings books provide quantitative information on TV and radio stations and the specific programs that are watched or listened to by various audience demographics, like age (e.g. 18-35-year olds), gender, and income.

Nielsen and Arbitron gather ratings data from sample audiences. While Arbitron mainly uses a diary method where listeners have to recall what they have listened to, Nielsen mainly uses “people meters” that automatically monitor what programs and channels a television set is showing. Both methods are criticized as being inaccurate because people don’t want their real habits to be known; people forget; people have the television or radio turned on but are not really paying attention; and some people are rarely sampled because they aren’t perceived as having a lot of discretionary income (e.g. elderly, children, and college students).

TV and radio stations use ratings for two main purposes. One is to decide what to charge companies for advertising during a particular program. If a station is broadcasting the most watched or most listened to program among 18-35 year olds, then it can charge more for 30 seconds of advertising than its competitors. A second purpose is to decide what programs or genres of programs are popular and whether they should be moved to another time slot or cancelled. For example, a current trend involves steep declines in ratings for TV talk shows, which is why Sally Jesse Rafael was recently cancelled.

Rob McKenzie is a Professor of Communication Studies at ESU and the University Advisor to ESU’s WESS Radio (90.3 fm).

May 30, 2002
How hard is it to win the lottery?
By N. Paul Schembari

Do you play the lottery? Do you know someone who does? I have some friends and family members who play, and since I have some knowledge of probability, I often try to dissuade their behavior. Probability is the mathematical field that is used to determine the “chances” of an event. For example, when a meteorologist tells us, “The chance of rain today is 80%,” probability has been used.

How does probability apply to the Pennsylvania Super 6 Lotto? If we consult the PA lottery web page (www.palottery.com) we see that the chance of winning the jackpot with a $1 bet is 1 in 39,959,158. That’s the same as the miniscule 0.0000025%.

Obviously, the lottery is a hard game to win, but exactly how difficult is it? Using probability we can discuss other games that are as difficult to win as the Lotto Jackpot. For example, winning the Lotto Jackpot is more difficult than tossing 25 coins and getting 25 heads in a row!

Furthermore, let’s imagine that a player decided to bet $1 per week from the time he is twenty years old until he is 60 years old. The chances that this player never wins the jackpot are 99.995%! Instead of playing the lottery, if the player had invested his money at 10% annual interest, then his investment of $2080 (40 ´ $52) would have grown to more than $24,000 at age 60!

Here’s my final argument. If I play one lottery game and you play one game, then we have the same chances of winning. So, here are my numbers: 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69. That’s right – every ticket has the same probability of winning as the ticket 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69! What are the chances of that happening?

N. Paul Schembari is a Professor of Mathematics and next Fall, he will become a Professor of Computer Science in order to teach in the new Computer Security Program (www.esu.edu/cpsc/security/csecwebpage.htm). His latest research is in the area of Cryptography.

June 6, 2002
How accurate are lie detector tests?
By Rick Wesp

Several weeks ago Philadelphia announced they were discontinuing use of lie detector tests to screen potential police officers. According to an article in the Pocono Record, officials believed the tests too often mischaracterized candidates.

Actually, what we call a lie detector does not really detect lies. Polygraphs, the instruments that measure responses to questioning, simply record physiological responses such as respiration, perspiration, and heart rate. Most importantly for lie detection, the polygraph measures stress responses. For example, when you are stressed, respiration rate increases. Lie detection is based on the logic that lying under questioning should lead to a detectable stress response – stress in response to an answer shows the answer is a lie.

How well does the logic hold up? If you think about it, maybe not that well. This spring, I demonstrated use of lie detector procedures to a group of students. The test worked; one volunteer showed a strong physiological stress response when telling simple lies. To demonstrate some of the problems of interpreting the physiological responses I began discussing a crime that had occurred that weekend (she clearly was not involved). When I asked her "what were you doing on Saturday night?" her stress response skyrocketed. After discussing the response with her, it became apparent that her physiological response was a reaction to an exciting romantic encounter she experienced that Saturday night. The recollection of the romantic encounter created the stress response, not a lie about the crime.

Polygraphs identify stress but not the cause of stress. Lie detector protocol minimizes some problems related to misattribution of the cause of stress reactions. However, most procedures require that someone interpret the meaning of the physiological responses, introducing a weak link between the physiological data and the conclusions that one has lied.

Richard Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology who has taught courses on Biofeedback, a therapy procedure that uses instruments similar to lie detection equipment to teach people to control stress and other physiological responses.

June 13, 2002
Why are fathers important in today’s society?
By Sussie Eshun

Father, daddy, dad, dada, papa, … these are words that bring positive and/or negative feelings to most people. Quite a substantial amount of information over the past two decades has focused on the negative effects of “deadbeat” dads, absentee dads, and abusive/neglectful dads. However, there are still a great number of fathers who are doing a good job.

Biological and surrogate/adopted fathers are important to our society because of the unique roles that they play in their families. Overall, researchers show fathers make many positive contribution including:

1. Material Support – Given that about 50% of mother-only families live below the poverty line, a father’s income is almost always needed to provide better living conditions for their child’s development.
2. Mentoring – Fathers encourage children to explore, endure frustration, and show resilience when faced with challenges. Thus, they serve as confidence boosters and moral teachers.
3. Nurturing – Researchers have concluded that when fathers are given a chance, they do an excellent job with the daily upkeep and nurturing of their children from birth. Although fathers and mothers may use different nurturing styles, they have been found to yield similarly positive results.
4. Role model – Father involvement has been found to decrease social and gender role stereotypes, and a child’s risk of criminal activity, drug use, and school drop-out.

Although we hear of many examples of poor father involvement, there are many responsible, nurturing, and loving fathers in our society. As we celebrate Father’s Day, we salute our fathers and encourage them to keep up with their good work. HAPPY FATHERS’ DAY, dads!

Sussie Eshun is an Associate Professor of Psychology at ESU whose expertise is in mental health, psychological testing, behavior modification, and cross-cultural research.

June 20, 2002
How can I insure that my child has a safe and meaningful experience at summer camp?
By John M. Hauth

Camps are a popular pastime for children that can provide a lifetime of wonderful memories. Here are some suggestions for preparing for a good camping experience adapted from guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics, National Athletic Trainers’ Association, and the American Camping Association.

When selecting a camp, consider the following:

Prepare your child by:

John Hauth is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science. He has served as director or consultant to over 25 different summer camps. Consult the following web sites for more information: www.nata.org
www.acacamps.org/accreditation; www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/summertips

June 27, 2002
What is a Value?
By Martin Weatherston

The answer is simple. A value is a value because someone values it. We value many things, but the most interesting values are moral values, that is, those principles by which we order our lives.
The striking thing about moral values is that they have implications beyond what we see with other values. When we hold moral values, we clearly are saying more than that we have a preference. For instance, my value of chocolate ice cream over vanilla is unlikely to demand that others exhibit this preference too. In contrast, if I value the prohibition against murder, I mean not only that I prefer people not murder, but also that others should oppose murder. In other words, people tend to believe that their moral values are not merely their own beliefs, but that their values also should be believed by others.

Because we expect others to share our moral values, moral values require justification. Indeed, it is the lack of a clear justification for values that makes many people claim that values are merely values, that is, they are relative. It is only when we can justify our values that we have the right to impose them on others (and we must impose values if we are to have laws, which are moral values that we impose on others).

We must then justify our values if we are to take a moral stance. That is why the teaching of ethical philosophy is essential to fostering the awareness of values. Ethical philosophy will not “teach values” in the sense of telling us what is right. Instead, the study of ethical philosophy can free us from the bad philosophy that often goes by the name of “common sense.” A “crisis in values” can only be overcome by making people think.

Martin Weatherston is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. His primary academic interests relate to Heidegger, Kant, and Continental Philosophy.

July 4, 2002
When TV meteorologists refer to the "models", what are they referring to?
By Robert Cohen

Nowadays, almost all TV meteorologists get their information via computer programs that are designed to simulate the atmosphere. These computer programs are called "models". The computer program treats the atmosphere as though it is a cube or layer filled with a grid of points. Each "grid-point" contains information about the air pressure, temperature, wind and humidity at that point. Depending on the type of forecast that is to be made, the model might cover the entire globe or just a particular region, like the North American region (such a region might be about 40 million square miles). The latter are called regional models and each grid point might represent a region that covers 400 square miles. With fifty layers (from top to bottom of the atmosphere), this means there are about 5 million grid points.

Weather balloons and surface stations provide the information for each grid point. Using laws of thermodynamics, the computer then makes a very short (one minute or so for regional models) forecast for each grid point based on the information at that and surrounding grid points. It does this for each grid point and then repeats this process on the new values, making a prediction for the following minute. The process is repeated over and over, eventually producing a forecast for several days ahead. A regular forecast is made up of a sequence of thousands of these very short predictions for millions of grid points.

As you might suspect, it takes a pretty fast computer to complete these computations fast enough to produce a useful forecast. Consequently, there are only a couple of models that are run and most are run by NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP; http://wwwt.ncep.noaa.gov) who share the predictions with TV meteorologists.

Robert Cohen is an Associate Professor of Physics with research expertise in the modeling of winter storms.

July 11, 2002
Why do Russians speaking English say things like "I your newspaper would like to read"?
By Kim McKay

When speaking a second language, handling the syntax, the order of key sentence parts, is perhaps the greatest challenge. This is particularly true when the first language and second language differ in their standard syntax, as do Russian and English.

Linguists use the designation SVO to describe languages that place the subject before the verb and the object after it. So in English when we say “Our parakeet attacked your cat,” we know we have an unusual bird. In fact, for the most part, sentence syntax is the only way we know who is doing what to whom. SVO languages like English account for about 35% of the world’s languages.

There are four possible syntactical sequences. Languages that place the object before the verb, called SOV languages, are actually more common than SVO languages, representing more than 40% of the world’s languages. The English gloss of the incredible parakeet sentence in an SOV language like Russian would be “Our parakeet your cat attacked.” In VSO languages like Irish (where the verb comes first, followed by the subject, and then the object), the syntax would be something like “Attacked our parakeet your cat.” Such ordering represents about 20% of known languages. The syntactical order of VOS, where the verb and the object precede the subject, is quite rare, representing perhaps 2% of all documented languages.

A few of the world’s languages are so free in their syntactical ordering that linguists can’t assign one of these designations. We can be sure, however, that such languages will have other means, such as markers that designate which noun is the subject and which is the object, to show who has attacked whom. We absolutely need to know.

Kim McKay, Associate Professor of English, teaches courses in grammar, linguistics, and twentieth-century literature.

July 18, 2002
Why is there so much violence in the media?
By Glenn Geiser-Getz

This question can be usefully examined through the perspectives of audiences, artists, and producers. Audiences may be drawn to violent media because such images satisfy some psychological need. Violent themes in a song may provide an outlet for adolescent frustration, while violent images in a film could attract audiences because they seem exotic. The violence may fulfill an audience’s need for adventure or escape. Freud would probably argue that viewing such images satisfies natural aggressive drives, thus reducing human tendencies toward actual violence.

Artists who create media often claim that drama itself is defined by conflict, a force for change that ultimately makes a story more interesting. Popular storytelling is usually more successful when the conflicts are familiar to the audience, so violence is often selected.

The biases of the artistic media themselves can also have an impact. Television is a primarily visual communication technology in which active, rapid, colorful images work best. Time limits may also prohibit the development of complex stories and force artists to use simple, tried-and-true methods of storytelling.

Perhaps the most compelling explanations for the dominance of violent conflict in media become evident within the producer’s perspective. The American media are privately operated as profit-seeking businesses in a free market economy. Theoretically, then, the most popular consumer products will thrive while the least popular products disappear. Consumers lend support to violent programming whenever they spend time watching it, listening to it, or reading about it.

Finally, the media market today is global in scope. Producers create for the entire world, so they select stories that can be easily transported across national boundaries. While comedy and romance sometimes fail to translate into other cultures because they depend on specific forms of knowledge, violence is more universally recognized and, therefore, more comprehensible and profitable internationally.

Dr. Geiser-Getz is an Associate Professor of Communication Studies. He recently returned from teaching journalism classes in Russia on a Fulbright Fellowship. His research interests include media studies, presidential rhetoric, and intercultural communication.

July 25, 2002
Are US-China relationships improving after last year's spy-plane incident?
By Wenjie Yan

Economics appear to be driving US-China relationships. While the US and Japanese economies are still skittish, the Chinese economy has experienced a staggering growth rate of between 6 to 10 per cent for the last five or so years. Although some Western economists are skeptical about the validity of official Chinese economic figures, economic development is easily noticeable to most visitors to China. The skylines of most Chinese urban areas are lined with cranes for construction and shopping centers are teeming with eager consumers.

In fact, Chinese economic growth started in the early 80’s when the then paramount Chinese communist leader, Deng Xiaoping, abandoned dogmatic Marxist economic policy by opening China to Western investment and privatizing landownership in rural areas. Since then the Chinese economy has quadrupled its size, becoming a very important emerging economy in an ever increasingly interconnected world economy.

Today’s China is becoming increasingly connected with the US. With trade in billions of dollars, China is ranked the fourth largest trade partner with the US. Inexpensive Chinese consumer goods ranging from Christmas ornaments to electronics have become an indispensable part of the average American’s daily life. Led by Motorola, GM, and Boeing, a growing number of American businesses are also quickly securing their positions in the potentially vast consumer markets in China. So far close to 60,000 Chinese students are studying in American universities and a couple thousand Americans are studying Chinese language and culture in China.

Despite the reconnaissance plane incident last year, China is cooperating with the US actively to fight against terrorism by sharing intelligence information about militant Muslims along the Chinese-Afghanistan border.

However, obstacles in improving the relationships between the two countries still remain. Issues include the Taiwan dispute, China’s poor human rights record, and their poor practice of protecting intellectual property rights.

Wenjie Yan is an Associate Professor of Communication at ESU. He is interested in the relationship between human perception, language use, and culture. He recently taught in China as part of a China Agricultural University and University of Colorado sponsored program.

August 1, 2002
My 6 year old son is bouncing all over the house! Is he hyperactive?
By Paul Bartoli

All kids and adults struggle at times to pay attention, sit quietly, and control impulses. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a more complex, often misunderstood topic. Current research estimates that ADHD occurs in 3 to 5 percent of all school age children and 2 to 4 percent of all adults. ADHD is characterized by a combination of 3 main factors that are excessive or inappropriate in comparison to other folks in similar stages of development.

Some people mostly express the first factor of inattentiveness. This can include failing to pay attention, making careless mistakes, and having difficulty following instructions or keeping organized. Other folks mostly express the second and third factor of hyperactivity-impulsivity. This can include being fidgety, running and climbing excessively, talking excessively, and having difficulty waiting, taking turns, or engaging in activities quietly. Lastly, some folks express all three of these factors combined.

It’s important to know that there are multiple symptoms for each factor, not just the ones presented here. There are clear guidelines to diagnosis that professionals such as mental health and medical care staff can assist you with. Because similar symptoms can occur from other difficulties such as anxiety, depression, or physical problems assessment from a professional is suggested if you suspect the conditions exist. Such an assessment will help clarify if emotional, social, educational, and employment functioning is occurring at a developmentally appropriate level.

Excellent treatments do exist for ADHD. These include:

Paul Bartoli is an Assistant Professor of Psychology with interests in counseling and development. In his private counseling practice he has addressed a variety of issues with families including ADHD.

August 8, 2002
What are false memories?
By Rick Wesp

Recent studies of memory show that our ability to recall may not be as accurate as we once thought. In one series of studies, observers watched videos of traffic accidents and then were questioned about what they saw. Experimenters who questioned them intentionally added irrelevant but inaccurate information about the videos. For example, when asking about the sequencing of an accident, the experimenter might refer to a traffic sign that really wasn't in the video. When observers described later what they saw, many referred to the false information the experimenter mentioned even though it was not in the video. When observers were told the object wasn't present, some argued that it really was, pointing out that they could "see it in their mind."

Hundreds of experiments have shown false memory in a wide variety of settings. False memories can be created through repeated statements by others, imagination, or as the result of watching the behavior of others. The only way to distinguish false from real memory may be through assessment of subtle processes in the brain.

These findings have very practical implications. Eyewitness testimony and other procedures related to interrogation of witnesses are now suspect. Therapists have recognized that some therapy procedures that encourage people to remember childhood experienced they have repressed have strong potential for creation of memories of events that never occurred. Those hearing media reports of events are not immune from false memory, a point the Catholic Church has used in its defense, noting that some recent claims of childhood sexual abuse may be based on false memories.

For those who don't believe false memory can occur, discuss with a friend details of a shared experience. Odds are several details of your stories won't match and neither of you will admit your memory of the events is wrong.

Richard Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

August 15, 2002
John Matras asked "The sizzle of bugs in bug zappers is a modern summer sound. But since they don't kill mosquitoes, what ARE they killing, and is that a good thing?"
By Balakrishna Rao

"Bug zappers" are electronic devices that attract insects using a particular range of ultraviolet light (UV or "black light") and then electrocute them. Insects are attracted to UV light and Entomologists have long used this property for surveillance (location and season). Later, UV lights were combined with an electrocuting gadget that produced audible sound – the "zzzzzaap."

Many purchase bug zappers to eliminate mosquitoes and other annoying back yard pests, assured by the zapping sound that these pests are being killed. However, their effectiveness has been questioned for decades.

Research has shown that zappers do not effectively control mosquitoes or other biting insects. In one study only 0.22% of bugs killed were biting insects where as 13% of the non-target insects killed were beneficial (predatory and parasitic) insects such as aphidlions and beetles. The largest portion killed (48.4%) were harmless, nonbiting aquatic insects important for the food chain leading to "fish food." Species from more than 104 nontarget insect families were destroyed!

Our own study at ESU conducted during a six-week period in the summer of 1996 collected 6400 insects comprising 65 families and orders. We attracted no mosquitoes and very few biting midges.

Zappers also have been used to control a more general insect population problematic in enclosed areas such as kitchens and restaurants. But some recent studies revealed that zapping houseflies and the like can disseminate harmful bacteria and virus.

How good are bug zappers? Entomologists estimate that 4 million bug zappers operating for 40 nights each summer would destroy in excess of 71 billion nontarget insects and have little to no impact on the mosquito population. On the whole, the bug zapper's only value may be in the auditory entertainment of the customer who hates any and all insects and has an attitude of "the only good bug is a dead bug"!

Balakrishna Rao is a Professor of Biological Sciences with interests in Entomology.

August 22, 2002
Fan violence associated with international soccer has escalated over the past thirty years. Why were there fewer reports of violence at the recent World Cup competition in South Korea and Japan?
By John Pooley

There is neither a simple or single explanation for crowd violence, but a better understanding of its roots has helped to reduce it. Several sources include:

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: As living standards increased, more fans traveled to “away” contests leading to more direct interaction among fans of rival teams. In countries like England, fans often watched while standing making physical altercations easier and control by law enforcement harder. Also, the more fans drink alcohol before, during and after competitions, the more likely confrontations become violent. Altercations often resulted in minimal consequences. Recent efforts have reduced close contact of rival fans. Recently, law enforcement has approached fan violence more assertively. Contact of large groups of rival fans was minimal in the venues of this year’s World Cup competition, and fans recognize that their violence has serious consequences.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT: Changes in societal norms associated with disintegration of the family may have caused an “I can do what I like” attitude. Even in intact families, children are exposed to examples of inappropriate fan behavior, often observing excessive verbal abuse directed toward referees and players by parents. Recent legal cases have highlighted inappropriate parental reactions in sports, though societal expectations appear to be changing.

SPORTS AS MODELS: Some fan violence is associated with violent sports. Fans see players break laws without penalty and athletic governing bodies sometimes ignore player violence. Again, teams have begun to recognize they must better control player violence both in and outside sporting arenas. When officials strongly sanction high profile players, fans recognize their violence will also be sanctioned.

In conclusion, as we better understand its causes, violence will be reduced when counter measures are used.

John Pooley, Emeritus Professor, Department of Movement Studies, taught and coached in six countries before accepting a position at ESU. His interests are in cross cultural and cross national studies relating to sport.

August 29, 2002
Why Do Hotel/Resort Room Rates Fluctuate Throughout The Year?
By Bob McMullin

Pricing in the lodging industry is very similar to other businesses - room inventory is based on supply and demand. Rates in the Poconos provide a good example of this concept.

The Pocono region entertains many activities throughout the year. Two of the more high profile events are the Pocono and Pennsylvania 500 at the Pocono Raceway in Long Pond. These races fill hotel rooms both locally and throughout eastern Pennsylvania.

James R. Abbey (in Hospitality Sales and Marketing published by the American Hotel Lodging Association) would identify this period as peak or in-season. Consequently, the local hospitality/lodging properties will collect full or "rack" rate.

Meanwhile, off-season is the time when demand is lowest. This time period requires the hotels or resorts to discount prices and accept travel discounts for members of groups such as AAA, and AARP. An example in the Poconos of an off-season is the month between Thanksgiving and Christmas, which tends to be slow throughout the lodging industry.

Finally, the period that falls between a peak and a valley is referred to as a shoulder time. This time period requires that the property build business and offer an array of rates from low to high. Autumn in the Poconos could be considered a shoulder period because lodging properties market and price based on the high demand for those visiting to see Fall foliage but then must market their property differently once the colors are past peak.

The economic concept of supply and demand has a great impact on hospitality lodging properties. So if you are a savvy traveler, booking during shoulder and off-peak times when demand is low can provide a substantial savings. If you need to travel during peak times do not expect many discounts because the demand is high and it is the seller's market.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Restaurant and Tourism Management. He instructs the Casino Management course at the university.

September 5, 2002
On the recent anniversary of Princess Di's death I noticed people remembered exactly what they were doing when they first heard the news. Why are these memories so strong?
By Rick Wesp

Events like the death of Princess Di, the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Kennedy assassinations, the Challenger disaster, and the terror attacks of September 11th seem to bring forward very vivid and detailed memories. Psychologists call these "flashbulb memories." Early research focused on the emotional nature of the events and suggested that strong emotions might enhance memory. More recent studies provide a simpler explanation.

Most people assume that emotion will disrupt or enhance memory but research shows its influence is not that direct. One indirect emotional influence on memory called "state-dependent learning" causes better recall of events when the emotional state during recall is the same as during the original experience. For example, in a study several years ago we had students learn a list of words while engaging in a frustrating task. When asked to recall the words at a later time, learners remembered more when they were frustrated (i.e., in the same emotional state) than when they were calm (i.e., in an incongruent state). Since most people would be calmer now than when they first heard about a tragic event, state-dependent learning would work against better recall in the flashbulb memory scenario.

Recent studies suggest the primary reason for flashbulb memories is that we rehearse the experience and this leads to better memory storage. When we discuss tragic events with our friends we tell them where we were, what we were doing, and who was with us. Each time we repeat our story (or simply reflect on the traumatic experience) we further embed the memory of those details. One study shows that our memories of the less personal details of these traumatic events – those we probably don't rehearse - fade as rapidly as memories of non-crisis events.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

September 12, 2002
Friday the 13th looms near, and many fear that bad luck may be just around the corner. Why are people superstitious?
By Paul Bartoli

A superstition is an irrational belief that an event was influenced by actions, things, or circumstances not logically or causally related to that event. Superstitions often result in the perception that an object or ritual can prevent bad luck. Athletes, actors, and gamblers are notoriously superstitious and B.F. Skinner showed superstitious behaviors even in pigeons!
Superstitions develop because humans naturally look to explain and control their environment. If we see a relationship between what we do and a consequence, a superstitious belief can develop and can guide future behavior. Because we remember vivid and illogically connected examples of great success or failure, our superstitions can become patterns in our life. For example, Michael Jordan allegedly wore his "lucky" college gym shorts underneath his Bulls uniform on the way to six NBA championships. If it worked the first time, why change and ruin his team's chances for another trophy?

Superstitions can be based on stories we hear or what we see happen to others. On Friday October 13, 1307 secret death warrants were carried out against the Knights Templar in Europe, possibly first linking the date to bad luck. The recent Friday the 13th movies have perpetuate the association between the date and unlucky events.

By the way, superstitions are in no way universal as they vary across time and cultures. In Italy, for example, to “make the 13” is currently good fortune as 13 matches wins you the lottery. New culture-based superstitions are created all of the time. Think of email chain letters that tout bad fortune if you don’t forward them!

You can decrease your superstitious behavior by developing an understanding of events taking place, purposefully not engaging in the superstitious behavior, then noting that events will unfold in the same fashion with or without the superstitious belief.

Paul Bartoli is an Assistant Professor of Psychology with interests in counseling and development. He has conducted research on misperception and has a local private counseling practice.

September 19, 2002
Many people are uncertain about when to use the pronoun “whom” instead of “who.” Can you clarify?
By Kim McKay

The pronoun “who” is the right choice when the word in question is the subject of a verb or when the word renames the subject of a verb. Therefore, we would say “Who threw the verb out the window?” and “The winner of the grammar contest is who?” In all other situations, “whom” is the correct choice. For instance, in the sentence “You asked whom to hide your grammar handbook?” we use “whom” because it is not the subject of the verb “asked,” which is the only complete verb in the sentence.

We could list all the syntactical situations that call for “whom.” For most of us, however, the complete list would be too much grammar to swallow without discomfort. It is much more efficient, instead, to stick to knowing when to use “who,” especially since the rules for “who” will always override those for “whom.”

While few of us would hesitate to choose “who” when it directly precedes the only verb in the sentence (Who is sleeping on the answer sheet?), our sentences using “who” or “whom” are often inverted because they ask questions, and they often contain more than one subject/verb pair. Consider this example: “Did Sandra tell you who she thought corrected her grammar?” There are three complete subject/verb pairs in this sentence. The pronoun “who” is the subject of the verb “corrected.”

In spoken language, such sentences challenge us since we need to choose a pronoun before we are sure whether it will have its own verb or not. In writing, we can always figure it out.

Kim McKay, Associate Professor of English, teaches courses in grammar, linguistics, and twentieth-century literature.

A century ago, when language data was first collected in U.S. schools, 51% of all high school students studied a language. Predictably, the languages studied - French (6%), German (10%) and Latin (35%) - were associated with scholarship, and not everyday communication. After World War I, German almost disappeared as a language of study, dropping to 0.6%. Students jumped from German to French, and Spanish. German and Latin eventually settled into the very low enrollments they hold today, roughly 2% each. Cold War fears during the late Fifties stimulated Russian study. However, other languages like Japanese have not been influenced by our political relationships.
Students and their parents now seem to choose a foreign language for its perceived utility rather than prestige. French continues to slip before the overwhelming dominance of Spanish, a language valued by employers since the 1980s because of the rising Spanish-speaking population. Almost a third of all high school students today are enrolled in a Spanish course, and Spanish accounts for fully 70% of all the languages studied.

Clearly, wars and the economy have impacted foreign language study. One of the consequences of last year's 9-11 attacks has been a reassessment of the nation's foreign language programs. In light of these attacks, we may expect to see an increase in the study of the so-called Less Commonly Taught Languages, including Arabic. This language is already taught, especially in Michigan and Calfornia, but enrollment is extremely low.

Although the nation's latest expansion of foreign language study has been intensified now by strategic concerns, educators welcome this change in a more general way. America is the world's melting pot but has long met that world on its own linguistic terms - that is, English - and more language study can only help us build bridges toward other cultures.

Jeff Ruth is Assistant Professor of Spanish.

In my sweet little Alice Blue Gown,
When I first wandered down in to town,
I was both proud and shy, as I felt ev'ry eye,
But in ev'ry shop window I'd primp, passing by...

Alice blue is a medium blue-gray shade named for Alice Roosevelt Longworth, daughter of Theodore Roosevelt and wife of Nicholas Longworth. The song was written for the 1919 Broadway musical, "Irene." That a shade of blue bears her name attests to Alice's popularity with the American people, a popularity born of her exuberance and wit.

Alice was born on February 12, 1884, to then New York State Assembleyman Theodore Roosevelt and his wife, the former Alice Lee. Within two days of her birth, both the newborn's paternal grandmother and mother died of disease. Thereafter, her heartbroken father rarely mentioned his wife's name, calling the young Alice "sister." Theodore married Edith Carow in 1886, and young Alice found herself part of a family in which, she later said, she never seemed to fit.

An assassin's bullet put Alice's family in the White House in 1901. There she eventually developed an attraction to the spotlight as strong as her father's. She took delight in wild behavior like driving cars, smoking, card playing, and dancing -- scandalous behavior for a respectable young woman then. The press loved her, and America could not get enough of the popular president's wild daughter.

Her loving, if frustrated, father tried to rein Alice in, but, as he once confessed to a friend, "I can either run the country or control Alice, not both." Alice died in 1980 at the age of 96, a life-long presence in America's political scene.

Martin Wilson is an Assistant Professor of History.

October 10, 2002
Arthur Illiano, Jr. of Effort, PA heard it was difficult to purify and store helium. He asked: "Is this true?"
By Michael Doherty

The helium atom is one of the smallest known substances, both in terms of diameter and mass. It is also chemically very unreactive. As a result, it has a remarkable ability to diffuse through other materials, or to effuse through gaps, pores, or pinholes of its container. It even fits in between the atoms of some metals in metal lattices.

For these reasons, helium diffuses quickly out through the rubber of an ordinary latex balloon. Metallized "Mylar" foil balloons slow down the diffusion, but eventually, helium will even find its way out of these. (Mylar can hold gases of larger molecular weight for months without losing volume.) Also, helium leaks more quickly through submicroscopic openings in the plumbing or valves of metal storage cylinders than do other gases.

Since helium is so chemically unreactive, purifying it by chemical means is not attractive. Most methods for helium purification rely on its unusual physical ability to diffuse through solid materials. For example, one manufacturer's website (gequartz.com) describes how at high temperatures, helium (and also hydrogen, deuterium, and neon) can diffuse through thin layers of fused quartz (a glassy material). The four gases can be separated from a natural gas source stream in this way. The permeability constant for helium through fused quartz is over 10 times higher than the constants for the other three gases. Passing a gas sample repeatedly through more layers of quartz thus yields an increasingly pure helium.

In recent years, purification techniques based on diffusion through polymer membranes have also been developed, especially for small end-user laboratory applications. Air Products, in the Lehigh Valley, is doing some fascinating research and development work on membrane purification techniques for gases.

Michael Doherty is a Professor of chemistry who employs his scholarly expertise in chemical measurement and instrumentation in his role as coordinator of the freshman general chemistry labs.

October 17, 2002
Are researchers cruel to animals?
By Joe Miele

Recently, the Pocono Record printed an AP story about a Maryland school student who refused to dissect a cat in her Anatomy lab. An increasing minority of students feel such labs are cruel to animals and should be replaced with computer simulations. Are they right?

How do people come to feel so strongly against research with animals? Most often, radical animal activists, perhaps unwittingly, mislead humane people about the true nature of behavioral research. Misinformation about the use of electric shock, food deprivation, physical restraint, injections and other procedures have left a trusting public with an image of torture chambers and a house of horrors.

In response to activist’s accusations, two psychologists critically reviewed 608 animal research studies published during a five-year span. They did not find a single instance of abuse or cruelty. Research animals are protected by federal law including the Animal Welfare Act of 1966, 1970, 1976, and 1985, and the Health Research Extension Act of 1986. The National Research Council Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals must be followed to receive federal funding. These regulations, and guidelines serve to minimize physical and psychological harm. For example, surgery must be done under anesthesia and postoperative care must be provided to prevent discomfort or infection. Additional guidelines exist for proper lighting, temperature, cage size, bedding material, and diet for most animals. At universities across the country, proposed research must be reviewed and approved in advance by an Animal Care and Use Committee. These committees inspect lab facilities and check the health of the animal colony. They ensure the researcher is meeting accepted research guidelines and help find ways to minimize the total number of animals used.

Researchers are not cruel to animals. They personally find animal cruelty abhorrent and professionally view it as “bad science.”

Joseph Miele is an Associate Professor of Psychology. His research and teaching activities include the study of mice and rats.

October 24, 2002
Sandy Kelley asks about choices between generic and brand name drugs and between health food store and drug store vitamins. Are there differences?
By Carol Heinrich

Each drug has only one generic name, but the drug may have more than one brand name. The generic name is derived from the chemical name of the drug, which is based on the chemical makeup of the drug. As long as there is not a patent, the generic drug can be made and marketed by different drug companies. Each company names the drug. This is why a generic drug may have 5 different brand names. Generic and brand names are therapeutically equivalent, which means that they do the same thing. Generic drugs are usually lower in cost. Even though the active ingredients are basically the same in all the brand names of the drug, the additives (color, flavor, fillers) may differ. A person with allergies should use caution and consider the additives for possible allergies.

Overall there are no differences between vitamins purchased in a health food store, drug store, or a wholesale supplier. The issue here is not the location or type of store where the purchase is made, but what actually is in the vitamin product. The consumer must compare the labels of the various vitamin products prior to purchase. The ingredients, serving size, and percentage of daily values are required to be listed in the Supplemental Facts Panel on the bottle. Make sure to check the serving size (number of tablets) that is required to meet the printed percentages of daily values. Some products may require one tablet, and another may call for three tablets.

Professor Heinrich is a faculty member in the Department of Nursing and specializes in Adult Health Nursing and teaches courses in adult health nursing, pharmacology and nursing research.

October 31, 2002
Can John Edward really communicate with the dead?
By Rick Wesp

Maybe, but there are simpler explanations. Evaluations of psychic performances show these readings are based upon critical information that psychics fool clients into revealing or on information they derive through researching the person's past.

"Cold reading" techniques guide clients into providing information psychics use to construct plausible stories. Psychics often ask leading or general questions (e.g., I hear “Al,” anyone know Al, the voice is muffled, it sounds like Al…?) and eager clients unwittingly provide details (e.g., "I have an aunt Alice that died of cancer – we sometimes called her Al."). The psychic can interpret the responses and develop follow-up statements (e.g., sense grief and comment on the sadness the client felt) and return to some of the information later when the client has forgotten that they provided it (e.g., “she suffered so much, it was cancer wasn't it?”).

Psychics present observations in a tentative tone and elaborate when they see confirming signals from clients. The "Crossing Over" website encourages participants to provide feedback, "a yes or no goes a long way in a reading." The psychic can dismiss erroneous statements as garbled signals from beyond or continue on to another vague statement making it appear the earlier statement could be true but was forgotten (Edward's website notes that "psychic amnesia" can occur in readings). Count Edward’s correct and incorrect predictions – remember editing probably removed more blatant faux pas and misses. How accurate was he?

Most psychic readings focus on positive findings. Edward tends to communicate that the loved ones are doing fine. We like to hear those good things and want to believe they are true.

Some psychics use investigators or the internet to research client backgrounds. It wouldn't take much to search names and find obituaries with details of an individual's family, employment history, and even pets or hobbies.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

November 7, 2002
Rod Johnson observed "I regularly see 'myself' used when I believe it should be 'I' or 'me' . . . but I don't think it is correct." How should it be used?
By Kim McKay

“Myself” and all the other reflexive pronouns (those ending with –self or –selves) have purposes different from those of the personal pronouns like “I.” For the most part, reflexive pronouns serve to designate that the subject and the object are the same person, as in “I find myself pondering grammar questions” or “I hurt myself by lifting that dictionary.” A similar usage requests that credit be given to the subject for some feat, as in “I wrote that sentence myself” or “ Since you weren’t there to help me, I had to answer that question myself.” One might also use the “self” pronouns to intensify the volume of the noun before it, as in “I myself would never read a grammar article at 8:00 a.m.” In such an utterance, there is a suggestion that someone you know is either doing it or suggesting that you do it!

Like the reader who asked the question, I too have heard “myself” used when clearly “I” is the expected choice. This sentence shows the usage I have heard: “The committee and myself worked long hours to bring you this report on the role of pronouns.” Indeed, there is no reason to say anything other than “The committee and I worked….”

That is the complete prescriptive grammarian’s response—the response that tells us what we should and should not do in language. Contemporary linguists, however, would describe the usage of “myself” for “I” or “me” and try to grasp the speaker’s motivation. The reader’s idea that speakers make the choice of “myself” to sound less personal is quite interesting. I have always guessed that such usage displays, ironically, a desire for language formality and correctness.

Kim McKay, Associate Professor of English, teaches courses in grammar, linguistics, and twentieth-century literature.

November 14, 2002
Linda Fehervari asks "Are Casino Slot Machines Fixed?"
By Bob McMullin

Charley Fey invented slot machines in 1887, while Herbert Mills distributed slot machines nationwide. The early machines gave a stick of chewing gum to jackpot winners. As casinos began developing in the 1940's, men preferred table games and slot machines were an amenity to the casino atmosphere. Female gamblers used played the slots while their husbands or REAL MEN played table games.

Now slot machines are the bread and butter of Casinos. Casinos would prefer to have slots, than table games because casinos can save labor costs of table game personnel. There are several kinds of slots in the casinos:
· Single Pay Line - each coin increases payout on a one-line jackpot
· Multiple Pay Lines - each coin activates an additional jackpot
· Progressive Slots – your bet buys you into a group of slots that contributes to a progressively larger jackpot but require playing multiple bets

The original machines were mechanical but modern slots are computerized. This prevents unscrupulous gamblers from cheating with magnets, slugs, and strings.

So are the machines fixed? No. Casinos are required by law to exceed minimum pay-outs to gamblers. State governments and casinos make hefty profits on the mass of coins deposited in machines and they recognize that without pay-outs, who would gamble? Many states want to capitalize on gambling revenue and that is why Pennsylvania wants to put slots in racetracks.

In Atlantic City the nickel to one hundred-dollar slots pay-out from a low of upper eighty percent to a high of middle ninety percent. The question is will you have picked the right slot at the right time at the right casino for a jackpot? If you have exhausted your funds before the jackpot, then you have been robbed by a "one arm bandit."

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Restaurant and Tourism Management. He instructs the Casino Management course at the university.

November 21, 2002
What is Critical Thinking?
By Martin Weatherston

Critical thinking does not mean we are being critical in the sense of being “negative.” We think critically when we examine claims people make to see if we really should be convinced by these claims. Before we can think critically, we must rid ourselves of any notion that a claim can be “true” for one person and “false” for another. Instead, we should ask whether the claim is such that it should be believed by any rational person. Has the person given reasons for the claim that should be sufficient to persuade us, no matter what our “preferences” may be?

When someone tries to persuade us to believe their claim, they give arguments for this position. We must examine these arguments for their adequacy. There are two sides to this investigation. First, any argument is based upon assumptions or premises. These premises may come from personal experience, scientific observation, or whatever, but for an argument to be truly convincing, it is essential that all these premises be true. If any one of the premises is not true, we can reject the argument right away.

The second side of critical thinking is to examine the structure or logic of the argument. It is not enough that an argument have true premises: there are many bad arguments that have no false premises. The important point is to recognize the connection of the premises to one another. A good argument connects premises by valid logic so that we are forced to accept its conclusion.

Critical thinking can be difficult. It is so much easier to go along with what people tell you. If we are not to be fooled by bad arguments, we must think for ourselves, and that means to think as critically as possible.

Martin Weatherston is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. His primary academic interests relate to Heidegger, Kant, and Continental Philosophy.

November 21, 2002 – No column on Thanksgiving Day

December 5, 2002
Ruth Wesp asked "Why does the KKK use the symbol of the burning cross?"
By Donna Hodge

It was not by accident that the Ku Klux Klan selected "the cross" which is the universal symbol of Christ's love and sacrifice for man, to be the representative symbol of their organization. The Ku Klux Klan has embedded into its rhetoric of hate and white supremacy a moral justification that is based upon their skewed interpretation of selected biblical scriptures. They believe that their actions of hate, terror, and even murder are simply the "means necessary to promote and maintain the moral purity of the white race."

The Klan believes that "the cross" is symbolic of the coming again or resurrection of Christ. They set the cross on fire because they believe that it represents Christ bringing them out of darkness and into the light. The "darkness" that they speak of refers to the fact that they are forced to share this country with a number of "undesirable" people. These people, of course, include African Americans, Jewish, Catholics, Homosexuals, and everyone not identified as a White Anglo-Saxon Protestant.

The "light" that they seek is for there to be one pure White race, "one light, one people." I am left then to surmise that they place a burning cross at the homes or establishments of those that they deem "undesirable" in an effort to force these individuals to leave. The logic, of course, being that the more "undesirable" people that you force through terror and intimidation to vacate an area, the closer the Klan gets to achieving it's ultimate goal of a "pure white state."

Donna Hodge is a Professor of Psychology and teaches a course on the Psychology of Minority Groups as well as courses on counseling and abnormal psychology.

December 12, 2002
Linda Fehervari asks "What is the casino game "Keno" and how do you play it?"
By Bob McMullin

Keno is a form of a lottery, and dates back to 1000 B.C. Some believed it was developed to finance and built the Great Wall of China. Keno arrived in the West Coast of the United States in the late 1800's and resembled a bingo game with wooden cards numbered from 1 to 85. Nevada casinos introduced "Race Horse Keno" to circumvent state laws against lotteries but "Race Horse" was dropped when Nevada began taxing horse betting in 1951.

Like local lotteries, you can have a computer randomly "quick pick" a Keno card for you or you may select your own numbers. Many players will select favorite numbers, birthdays, anniversaries, and the like. There are 80 numbers from which players may select up to 20.

You do not have to play all 20 numbers, but winning the top jackpot requires the successful selection of all 20 numbers. You can win smaller amounts by selecting or matching fewer numbers, which may make this game worthwhile.

As with all casino games, the house has the advantage. In Keno, the house advantage is a whopping 25%.

Most casinos have a Keno lounge with game brochures, pencils and Keno betting pads. Some casinos offer the game while you dine, in fact, they have Keno runners who resemble cocktail waitresses, who will take your bet(s) and return with your Keno numbers. Other casinos provide closed circuit Keno results in your guest room. Every 8 to 12 minutes numbers for a new game are drawn. Each game is numbered from one to nine hundred and ninety nine and you should make sure the drawing matches the game number you bet on. Be sure to present the ticket to the Keno cashier because you may win with only a portion of your numbers.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Restaurant and Tourism Management. He instructs the Casino Management course at the university.

December 19, 2002
How do we see?
By: Rick Wesp

Most of us do not think much about how our brain interprets what our eyes view. The model most hold is that there is something equivalent to a big picture screen in our head and we look at it and interpret the picture from within. Obviously that account is circular and doesn't work.

Actually, the brain breaks visual information down into small parts and then those parts are processed in specialized areas of the brain. Our conscious images are a consolidation of the result of many separate processes. For example, one area of the brain appears to identify what an object is, using in its processing elements such as color and line orientation. Another area assesses size and location of objects to allow us to grasp them (grasping is not driven by our conscious images). This portion of the brain does not rely on color but includes information about movement and depth. Those with what has been termed "blindsight" may be able to guide their movement because this "grasping" area functions but they can't "see" their environment because the "recognition" system is dysfunctional.

Our understanding of vision is based on research on vision in monkeys whose visual system is similar to ours. Other evidence comes from observations of individuals with brain damage to their visual system. For example, a woman with damage in one major motion processing area was able to recognize objects but could not see movement. She could pour liquid into a glass but she did not know when to stop pouring because she could not see the liquid rising. Monkeys with damage to a similar area of the brain have difficulty seeing movement.

A better understanding of these processes will help us aid people with localized brain damage or malfunctions by teaching them how to compensate by using undamaged systems.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

December 26, 2002
Why are there more suicides during the holidays?
By Sussie Eshun

The notion that there are more suicides during the holidays is a myth, which is mostly perpetuated by the media. According to the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, April has the highest suicide rates and the reasons for these high rates are unclear. So why do most of us believe this myth about suicide and the holidays?

First, there is often an increase in rates of depression and anxiety during the holidays. This reported depressed mood may be related to people missing loved ones who have died, and are therefore no longer part of their holiday traditions, which in turn increases our sense of loneliness and may tend to increase the incidence of suicide ideation as well.

Second, studies show that our perceptions of events are often based on the contextual meaning. Given that holidays are expected to be filled with cheer and good will, when someone (we know) commits suicide during this period, it may have more of a negative impact on us and stand out in our memories.

We often question why anyone could have taken his or her life at a time when everybody is expected to be joyful, or we may feel guilty about having failed the victim in one way or another. However, these are questions that are typically asked after a loved one commits suicide, irrespective of the season. Thus, it seems like the impact of a negative incident such as suicide tends to be stronger when it occurs at a time when people are in a positive or happy mood.

If you have a relative or friend who seems somewhat down during the holidays, the best gift you could offer them is your love, support, and encouragement to seek professional help.

Sussie Eshun is an Associate Professor of Psychology whose expertise is in mental health, psychological testing, behavior modification and cross-cultural research on suicide.

January 2, 2003
H. C. Kay of Long Pond asked: “Would you please explain the usage of ‘like’ and ‘as’ and give examples, especially where they are used incorrectly."
By Kim McKay

The usage complexities of these words have given grammarians plenty of fodder. First, note that both words can function as prepositions, words that prepare for a noun or pronoun that will follow. “Like” functions as a preposition in this sentence: “Like me, you are weighing usage issues in your sleep.” The similar use of “as” is obvious in this construction: “As a gymnast, Alex outperforms all of his competition.” Both words head phrases that modify the noun that follows them: “like me” describes “you”; “as a gymnast” describes “Alex.” Having said all of that, I am rather certain I have not addressed the problem that prompted the reader’s question.

The common usage problem comes from using both words as subordinating conjunctions. These words link dependent clauses to independent clauses. Here “like” and “as” split company, for only “as” has the grammatical power to perform that function. The following sentence provides an example: “We bit our tongues as we heard ‘like’ trying to do the job of ‘as.’” In this sentence, the independent clause, “We bit our tongues,” is joined to the dependent idea, “we heard ‘like’ trying to do the job of ‘as,’” by the subordinating conjunction “as.” This is “as” it should be, not “like” it should be.

While I am hard put to think of an example of “as” used incorrectly, the use of “like” for “as,” “as if,” or “as though” is as common in informal writing as it is in speech. Here is an example: “Don’t act like this is the first time you have heard ‘like’ misused!” In formal writing and careful speech, we would prefer the conjunction “as if”: “Don’t act as if this is the first time you have heard ‘like’ misused!” “As if” serves to link the two parts of the sentence together, a job “like” just does not have the power to handle, even though colloquially it suffices with considerable regularity.

Kim McKay, Associate Professor of English, teaches courses in grammar, linguistics, and twentieth-century literature.

January 9, 2003
Is Chinese language more difficult to learn?
By Wenjie Yan

To answer this question, I believe we need to, first of all, make a clear distinction between language and writing. Language is mainly speech. Humans developed language since the time we were defined as human beings and therefore human language has a history of at least a million years. In comparison, writing as an accessory to our language is only about 4,000 years old.

I believe Chinese language actually is very easy to learn because Chinese grammar is very simple. For example, unlike such romance languages as English and French, Chinese does not require change of verbs to indicate such things as tenses, genders, voices or moods. In Chinese, tenses are often expressed through use of adverbs and/or contexts. This alone will save a student of Chinese language a great deal of time because he/she does not have to memorize those conjugations of words often required of learning a romance language.

However, Chinese can be difficult learn to speak because Chinese language is a tonal language. The same word pronounced with different tones will carry different meanings. For example, the word “ma” could mean “mother”, “marijuana”, “horse” or “curse” depending on which tone is employed in pronouncing this word. There are four tones in Chinese and it requires some practice to master them.

What makes many people believe Chinese is difficult to learn actually is Chinese writing. Unlike the alphabetic writing system, Chinese writing does not map directly the spoken form of Chinese language. Thus to learn to read and write Chinese requires very intense memorization. To be able to read a Chinese newspaper equivalent of the USA Today will require a mastery of 1,500 characters. However, on the other hand, what motivates many people to study Chinese language often is its picture-like writing system.

Wenjie Yan is an Associate Professor of Communication interested in the relationship between human perception, language use, and culture. He will be teaching Basic Chinese in Spring of 2003.

January 16, 2003
Sandi Lynn asks "How does a radio work?"
By David Larrabee

Here is the simplest answer I can give you. A radio station takes sound and converts it into a radio wave (a form of light that you can’t see). The radio station’s antenna then radiates (releases) that radio wave. If that radio wave reaches your radio then it can convert the radio waves back into the original sound!

There are a lot of radio stations all around the world. We do not want to hear them all at once! Since radio waves are a kind of light, they come in colors! Rather than name each color, we give each radio wave a number, called its frequency. When you change the dial on your radio you are telling the radio which frequency to convert to a sound wave.

Sometimes more than one radio station uses the same frequency! The reason you usually don’t hear more than one station is that the stations are kept far away from each other. Radio waves travel in straight lines and the Earth is curved. So radio waves from distant stations never reach you, but pass above your head!

Some radio waves can bounce off of the ionosphere which allows these radio waves to travel farther! Amateur Radio operators use these waves to talk to people all over the world.
The AM and FM “Bands” on your radio refer to different groups of frequencies and different techniques of converting sound to radio waves and back again. Both use analog technology, like cassette tapes for music.

Recently another band of frequencies called Satellite radio has been created. This band sends the sound information digitally (like a CD) for better fidelity. The transmitters are located on Satellites so the radio stations can be heard all over the Continental United States.

So after 100 years, radio is still improving!

David A. Larrabee is an Associate Professor of Physics and teaches courses in electricity and magnetism. His research interests include the unintended interactions of radio waves with electronic equipment. He is also an Amateur Radio Operator (N3WOD) and is interested in the design and construction of Radio transmitters and receivers.

January 30, 2003
What Are Learning Disabilities?
By Edith Miller

The term learning disabilities covers a heterogeneous group of difficulties for which there is no one universally accepted definition. Learning disabilities are identified primarily by exclusion. A student may be diagnosed as having a learning disability when significant academic deficits exist which can not be explained by mental retardation, sensory impairments, emotional disturbance, physical conditions, environmental factors, language difference, or lack of opportunity to learn. Although results of recent research indicate that certain language centers in the brain are different for persons who have dyslexia (a severe reading disability) from those individuals who do not, there is currently no technological means of identifying learning disabilities. However, the assumption remains that learning disabilities are neurological in origin and that this neurological condition forms the basis for the processing problems which affect how information is perceived, stored, and/or retrieved for individuals who have learning disabilities. While differing in scope and emphasis, the three national definitions of learning disabilities (Federal definition for IDEA, National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, and Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities) include five common points:

¨ Learning disabilities are the results of neurological dysfunction;
¨ Uneven growth patterns are evident in individuals who have learning disabilities;
¨ Learning disabilities result in difficulties in academic and learning tasks;
¨ A discrepancy between an individual’s potential and actual achievement will exist in those with learning disabilities;
¨ Other causes for difficulties have been excluded.

Processing deficits may affect the visual, auditory, and/or motoric systems. In academic settings, students will encounter most difficulty if visual, visual-motor, and/or auditory processing have been compromised. Learning disabilities are life long, can not be cured, and do not disappear. However, through the use of appropriate accommodations and compensatory strategies, many individuals with learning disabilities succeed in academic settings including doctoral and professional programs.

Edith F. Miller is a Professor and Disability Service Coordinator whose expertise is in the area of learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

February 6, 2003
Can a poet's biography actually obstruct the appreciation of his/her poetry?
By Rhonda Ray

Lord Byron, the early nineteenth-century British poet, has intrigued readers for close to two centuries. A number of factors prompt this fascination: his reputation as a great lover, his dashing good looks, his aristocratic heritage, his death in the cause of the Greek War of Independence at age 36, his possible incestuous relationship with his half sister, and his radicalism, which threw social and literary conventions of early nineteenth-century England into so much disarray that the publisher of his last major poem, "The Vision of Judgment," was tried in English courts.

Whatever the fascination, Byron’s life has been examined in hundreds of biographies--more volumes than have been devoted to explorations of his poetry. Readers of Byron’s poetry are faced with the question of how his biography and poetry intersect. Is it possible to read Byron’s poetry without interpreting it biographically, and is it fair to interpret Byron’s life through his poetry? Byron made such intersections inevitable when he created poetic narrators who are self consciously autobiographical. Nevertheless, readers should avoid allowing biography to reduce the meaning and significance of texts. Byron’s male characters are not just stand-ins for the poet, although they may share his radicalism, self-exile, and isolation. They are also representations of mankind, a universal persona that does not fit into the world in which it exists. These characters carry a burden of guilt, symbolically suggesting a fallen humanity that is burdened by original sin. These heroes also challenge a superficial society governed by political and religious conventions lacking the essence of justice and compassion.

Though renowned, Byron is largely misunderstood. Only when readers move beyond the limitations imposed by the many versions of his life and loves will his poetry gain the appreciation it warrants.

Rhonda Ray is a Professor of English and specializes in eighteenth-century and early nineteenth-century British literature.

February 13, 2003
What is love?
By Reneé Boburka

Poets and philosophers throughout the ages have pondered the mystery of love. Recently, psychologists have attempted to demystify the notion of love by placing it under the scientific microscope. Love occurs in many shapes, forms, and different types of relationships, but the focus of modern research has primarily been to study love of the romantic variety -- the type written about by poets, sung by musicians and painted by many an artist.

Much of the research has divided the concept of love into two components, the first being passionate love. Passionate love evokes physiological arousal. A person whose heart races in the presence of another would exemplify this. Passionate love also includes strong emotions, desires, sexual attraction, and intense preoccupation with another.

But isn’t love more than just attraction and desire? Of course it is! Any couple in a long-term relationship knows that there is more than this. The second type, companionate love, is a more comfortable, trusting love based on a deep sense of friendship and enjoyment of being together. This may not sound as exciting as passionate love, but is very important in its own right. When long-term partners were asked why their marriages were successful, the most common reasons given were indicative of companionate love. This is not to say that passionate love disappears, though. Passionate love can exist in long-term couples as well, but companionate love is likely responsible for the long-term success of the union.

So back to our original question, what is love? The answer likely depends on where two people are in the progression of their relationship. Two individuals beginning their journey together often experience the strong emotions, desires, and preoccupations of passionate love. For couples in successful long-term relationships, we usually see the comfort, affection, trust, and friendship of companionate love.

Reneé Reiter Boburka is an Assistant Professor of Psychology. Her research interests include the study of love and interpersonal relationships.

February 20, 2003
Why is Black History Month in February?
By Sussie Eshun

Black History month dates back to February 1926, and was initiated by Carter G. Woodson, Ph.D. as “Negro History Month.” Dr. Woodson was a son of slaves who started school later than most children because he had to work in Kentucky’s coalmines to earn money for his family. Consistent with his motto (which was, “It’s never too late to learn”), he successfully earned a doctorate from Harvard University. While working as a High School teacher, he was disappointed to find out that the history of African-Americans was not taught in schools. He thus started the Association for the Study of Negro (currently, Afro-American) Life and History (ASAHL), and later established “Negro History Week” in February 1926.

Dr. Woodson selected the second week in February for this celebration because it marked the birthdays of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln, both of whom had great impact on the history of African-Americans. In 1976, the Negro History Month observance was expanded to include the entire month of February to provide more time for programs and celebrations. Since its inception, the ASALH has established the theme for each year, and for 2003 it is “The souls of Black Folk: Centennial Reflections”, with emphasis on the evolving scholarship expressed by W.E.B. Dubois throughout his career.

In 1984, the United States Post Office issued a stamp honoring Carter G. Woodson, and has since honored some key people in African-American history. As we celebrate this month, I would like to invite readers to join us in our celebrations here at ESU and also to participate in other community activities.

Sussie Eshun is an Associate Professor of Psychology, and has been part of the African-American History Month program committee in past years.

February 27, 2003
Fran Boccella asks, "What was the country, now called Iraq, originally named?"
By Ian Ackroyd-Kelly

As one might expect, any place that has been intensively settled for all of human recorded history – some ten thousand years – would have had the opportunity to go by quite a few names. And then there is the little matter that what we call a place as Westerners is seldom the same as what the local population might choose to call themselves. Put both of these together and your question, as to what the country now called Iraq used to be called, gets a bit complex.

The simplest explanation is that prior to the end of World War II, the country now (since 1958) officially called the Republic of Iraq (Al Jumhuriyah al Iraq) was most commonly known to Westerners as Mesopotamia. That name was actually bestowed on the region by the Greeks and literally translates as “between the rivers.” This is a reference to the position of the core of the country between the two principal (and roughly parallel) rivers of the region – the Tigris and the Euphrates. This made the area an integral part of the famous Fertile Crescent and also the site of the Agricultural Revolution (the change from a hunting and gathering society to a farming culture) about 10,000 years ago, and the first true cities about 5,500 years ago.

Because this was such a vital land, it is not surprising that it has seen many conquerors over the centuries and, as a consequence, many names. Some of these were Babylonia and Assyria, but it was also part of Persia, Greece (under Alexander) and the Mongol and Ottoman empires at various times. It officially became Iraq when it achieved independence in 1932 and that name has increasing gained acceptance.

Ian Ackroyd-Kelly is a Professor and Chairperson of the Geography department.

March 6, 2003
Lisa Gentile asked, "Other than Disney World are there any other famous attractions in Florida?"
By Robert McMullin

Disney World is the most popular and famous attraction in Florida today. A visitor or family may discover their experience at Disney World to be costly with great demands on their time to select the attractions that appeal to them.

An alternate to Disney World, is an attraction near Interstate 75, one mile east of the Ocala, Florida exit, named "Silver Springs." This central Florida park became popular in the late 1800's, partly from the area steamboat and commercial development between 1850 to 1860's. Operations were suspended during the Civil War, but the end of the war brought visits by many celebrities including, Mary Todd Lincoln, General Ulysses S. Grant, and William Jennings Bryant.

As the result of the beautiful springs, there are millions of aquatic creatures, captivating natural water attractions, and a natural world made by nature. The invention of the Glass-Bottom Boats provided visitors an unobstructed view of the natural beauty of the springs.

Silver Springs offers other family attractions including a jungle cruise and a Jeep Safari Ride. These tours allow visitors to get close to antelopes, llamas, ostriches, and other African wildlife. As the result of the African beauty, six original movies of Tarzan with Johnny Weissmuller were filmed at Silver Springs. The attractive vistas and waterways also were the setting for 100 episodes of Sea Hunt with Lloyd Bridges, and a 007 movie.

The park has hourly animal shows, continuous petting zoos, activities for children, and rocking chairs for others. If you time your visit just right, you may see a contemporary music show by Willie Nelson, Paul Anka, the Beach Boys or other entertainment.

Silver Springs is a designated registered Natural Landmark. The park is easily accessible, reasonably priced, educational, and made by nature. Silver Springs is a worthy day trip detour before or after your Disney World experience.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management.

March 13, 2003
What was Celtic society like for women?
By Edith F. Miller

Although the rest of Europe was plunged into the “Dark Ages,” seventh century Ireland was a time and place of enlightenment and learning. Students flocked to Irish universities from all over Europe. The Irish were governed by a system known as the Brehon Laws and the Celtic Catholic Church still held dominance. The Celtic Church, which was later subsumed by Rome, developed differently than did the Roman Catholic Church and was more like the Eastern Orthodox churches in dating the church calendar and view of women’s place within the church hierarchy. In addition, Celtic monks wore a tonsure that was distinctively different from that of their Roman brethren. Celibacy was not part of Celtic teaching or tradition; therefore, men and women could marry and live in double houses or conhospitae in abbeys and monastic foundations to raise their children together and remain in Christ’s service. Most surprisingly, women were ordained priests and bishops in the Celtic Church. Letters exist that were sent from Rome to protest the fact that female priests were celebrating mass in the Celtic Church.

The Brehon Laws provided opportunities and protection for women in civil life as well. Women could aspire to all offices and professions. They held political office and were military commanders. Irish women of this period were poets, artisans, lawyers, magistrates, judges and physicians. Women were protected from sexual harassment and discrimination, and from rape. They had the right of divorce on equal terms with their husbands, could demand part of their husband’s property in a divorce settlement, and maintained the right of inheritance of their personal property. Unfortunately, all these rights were lost by the 17th century when the English colonized Ireland and suppressed the use of the Brehon Law system.

Edith F. Miller is a Professor and Disability Services Coordinator with research interests in medieval life and literature.

March 20, 2003
Last month we celebrated Black culture and this month women, why is diversity considered such an important issue in today’s society?
By Donna Hodge

The best way to answer this question is simply to reverse the issue. In other words, what would the world be like without diversity? If we all were the same, one color, one gender, one ethnicity, one religion, one class, one anything, what would our lives be like? In my opinion, the routine nature of us all being alike would result in a world that would become a monotonous, boring, and uninteresting place. For many people, the idea of same shared experiences produces a tremendous feeling of comfort and security. As a result, diversity is then perceived as a concept to be feared and rejected. The erroneous assumption is that “embracing diversity” results in a loss or abandonment of one’s own identity. Nothing could be further from the truth, because by embracing diversity we hope that individuals will broaden their experiences, enhance their knowledge and understanding, and come to a place of tolerance and acceptance. If we are ever able to open up our hearts and minds to come to respect the unalienable rights for all people to share in this land, then maybe, just maybe, one day we can live in a place where we all can just simply get along.

Donna Hodge is a Professor of Psychology and teaches courses in abnormal psychology, therapy, and the psychology of minority groups.

March 27, 2003
Marta Gouger of the Pocono Record asked why she had such a hard time getting her cocoa powder to mix into the hot water.
By Michael P. Doherty

This is not as simple a question as it first seems. Cocoa powder is a complex mixture. Added water will dissolve the sugars, emulsify the fats, and suspend the larger solids. Several physical and chemical factors are at play.

Polarity is one factor. Water is “polar,” meaning its oxygen atoms are slightly more negative, while its hydrogen atoms are slightly more positive. Water molecules attract other polar or ionic substances with similar charge separation. This is why sugars and table salt dissolve so well in water. In contrast, the fats and oils in cocoa and milk powder are nonpolar, and tend not to dissolve well in water.

Water doesn’t “wet” nonpolar substances effectively. A boundary between the polar and nonpolar ingredients can occur, like the boundary between layers of oil and water. It is as if each little grain of the powder wears a tiny water-repelling raincoat.

“Emulsifying agents”, such as lecithin from soy beans, may be added. These are long molecules with both polar and nonpolar ends. These surround microscopically tiny drops of nonpolar fats or oils, and suspend them in the polar water. But their action takes time.

Temperature and stirring can affect the rate of any of the contributing processes of wetting, emulsifying, or dissolving. A food chemist designing a faster-mixing cocoa beverage would also address the size, shape, and pores of the varied grains of powder. The surface tension of the water, and its ability to penetrate the powder, factors in. Drying also can denature some of the milk proteins, affecting their solubility.

For now, if you want a well mixed, homogeneous drink, you’ll just have to stir between sips.

Michael P. Doherty is a Professor of Chemistry whose general education course, Chemistry for the Consumer, addresses food science.

April 3, 2003
Can astrology predict our behavior?
By Rick Wesp

Many of you start your day by turning to the horoscopes in this paper. The two or three sentences suggest ways we might deal with the day and include cautions and encouragement. Occasionally we think back about how the predictions matched our experiences. At the end of the day we might even wonder whether things would have gone better if we had taken the suggestions more seriously.

Some consider more elaborate personal predictions made by "professional" astrologers to be a much better route to take than the simplistic predictions found in the newspaper. Even President Reagan is reported to have followed the advice of astrologers in making policy decisions. But does astrology work?

The evidence suggests astrology doesn't predict our future. From a physical perspective, we know the concept is flawed. Astrology is rooted in the assumption that behavior is controlled by the position of the stars. Skeptics have shown that over the centuries the position of the stars has changed but the predictions have not. Behavioral studies have shown no relationship between personality characteristics measured by psychological tests and astrologic signs (Leos do not share personality characteristics as astrologic theory predicts).

A common debunking exercise involves distributing identical astrological predictions to all people in a large group. When asked whether the predictions are accurate, most will say yes. Try reading the wrong horoscope to a friend and you will find they are just as likely to see it as accurate as if you were to provide their correct reading. The bottom line is that we seek and find meaning in the information we are given and we forget about inaccurate predictions. The relationships between personal astrological predictions and our life experiences are not causal; they are purely coincidental.

Richard Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology and has taught courses that examine the psychology of belief in paranormal experiences.

April 10, 2003
Why does the US population favor the war against Iraq when most of the rest of the world is against it? Is it that the rest of the world is ignorant or are we?
By Rob McKenzie

The answer is obviously neither, and probably has more to do with the way media are used in the US.

Since most of us have never been to Iraq, much of what we know about Iraq comes from the media. Research shows that in the US, most people receive news through television, radio, and newspapers that originate only from inside the US. The main reasons are that US media executives (1) don’t want foreign media to compete for their advertising dollars; (2) belittle foreign media as weird or hostile to American interests; and (3) perceive that Americans aren’t very interested in news originating from other countries.

But around most of the rest of the world, there is a very different scenario. For example, in England I recently watched BBC News (England), TF1 news (France), CCTV news (China), Euronews (Europe), NBC news (US), and CNN news (US)—all available on British television. This variety of news has presented a wide mix of contrasting images—an Iraqi boy crying in a hospital, a British soldier distributing water to Iraqi citizens, bodies of injured Iraqis in the hospital, a US soldier greeting a relieved Iraqi citizen, peace marches around the world Kenyan truck drivers describing beatings by Iraqi soldiers, and an interview with a British politician about allegations of US warheads discharging uranium into the air. This collage of images has more balance than the mostly pro-war images present in US media.

In our society we automatically seek to compare a salesperson’s pitch for a product with the prices and specs of that product at other vendors. Yet oddly, we don’t seem to actively seek out comparative perspectives on “the news” from other countries—even with the availability of the Internet. So the use of media probably explains why US public opinion generally mirrors opinions of US media on world affairs.

Robert McKenzie is a Professor of Communication Studies. He currently is in England where he is conducting research for a book he is writing on media from around the world.

April 17, 2003
Mahdi J. Hinds-Zaami asked "why are rabbits associated with Easter?"
By Faith Waters and Edward Kimes

What a great question, Mahdi! Often we celebrate holidays without understanding them, and in this particular case, you’ll see how the Easter bunny has a strong connection to our area.

Let’s start from the beginning. From the early days of humankind, we have celebrated the end of cold, dark winter and cheered the beginning of new life, colorful flowers, and brighter days. Early civilizations created a festival honoring Eostre, the goddess of spring. Different versions of her story exist that relate to your question. Eostre was said to have a sacred companion, a hare, which is an animal that is larger and not as common as a rabbit. Other stories claim that Eostre had a pet bird that she turned into a hare that entertained children by laying beautiful eggs. A third version states that Eostre’s head looked like a hare. All the stories agree that during the festival of Eostre, children received gifts of eggs from the beloved hare.

As the Christian church expanded, it incorporated traditions that new people enjoyed and wanted to continue. By the 1500’s the hare had become part of the Easter celebration in Germany. Children would make grass nests and hide them in their yards Easter eve hoping that “Oschter Haws” would leave brightly painted eggs and sugar cookies in the nests overnight.

The hare was replaced with a bunny when the Germans immigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1700’s. Grass nests were replaced by bonnets and caps and later by beautiful baskets. Children were cautioned to be “good,” or the Easter bunny might not leave colorful eggs, cookies, and other simple treats.

So if you see an Easter basket this weekend, remember that the rabbit’s visit symbolizes the wish for renewed life and a reward for good deeds.

Faith Waters is a Professor in the Professional and Secondary Education Department. She is currently involved in several initiatives related to technology in education and leadership. Rev. Edward Kimes is the pastor of East Stroudsburg United Methodist Church.

April, 24, 2003
Craig Reidenbach asked “are schizophrenics and bipolars more creative than people without mental illnesses?”
By Paul Bartoli

Hemingway, Tolstoy, Dickens, Van Gogh, Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, Newton, Lincoln, Churchill and many others were creative individuals with diagnosable mental illnesses. Recent movies highlighting disorders such as A Beautiful Mind about John Nash and The Hours about Virginia Woolf help personalize these people for us.

Creativity is commonly defined as the development of something original, useful, and appropriate for the situation in which it occurs. A wide variety of things like new works of art, music, literature, and even a political or scientific breakthrough can all be considered creative acts.

Schizophrenia has as its main symptom a loss of touch with reality, often characterized by hearing voices. Bipolar disorder (manic-depression) is a cycle of extreme mood swings from severe depression to mania, which is often a temporary state of excessive energy accompanied by risk taking behaviors.

Studies have clearly and repeatedly demonstrated a significant connection between Mood Disorders (bipolar disorder is one) and creativity, especially in the fields of art and literature. Reasons for this possibly include the individual’s increased emotional sensitivity to both the environment around them and stimuli from within. Bipolar disordered folks may also benefit from the added energy of the manic phase which can hold off fatigue and, at times, increase the focused concentration often present during creative periods. In addition, creative risk taking can stimulate original avenues of pursuit never before conceptualized.

New research on schizophrenia is less clear. The thought disturbances were long thought to interfere with the thinking required for creativity, and for most schizophrenics this remains the case. However, because there are multiple types of schizophrenia certain related diagnoses such as schizoid and schizotypal disorders appear to be moderately connected with creativity.

It is important to note that the symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder often vary in severity over time for a person. When severe they can regularly and significantly interfere with everyday life functioning, including the creative process.

Paul Bartoli is an Assistant Professor of Psychology with interests in counseling and personality. His counseling experience includes working with individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorders.

May 1, 2003
Dick Corcoran asked "is there a danger to the eyes from illuminated clocks?"
By Rick Wesp

Probably not. The light from digital clocks and other digital displays typically is generated by light emitting diodes (LEDs). These devices produce photons that are absorbed by a pigment in the retina of the eye, initiating a chemical change that eventually is interpreted by the brain as light. Light bulbs and other light sources also produce light by generating photons.

The LEDs used in most display devices do not emit light with characteristics that would damage the eye. Three of the characteristics of light that are important in determining potential damage to the eye are intensity, duration, and frequency. Most digital displays around the home or in your car are relatively dim, are viewed briefly, and are within safer visible red or green frequencies.

Some LEDs can produce light that can damage your eyes. Specialty LEDs (laser diodes) produce the light in laser pointers, laser beams used to read CDs, and in other laser applications. While the light from a CD player or pointer is not as intense as a laser designed to cut steel, under certain viewing conditions it could damage your eyes. However, Dr. Amit Gupta, an ophthalmologist at Pocono Eye Associates says damage from laser pointers is uncommon and would require direct viewing for more than a few seconds.

Some laser applications use light in the non-visible frequencies that introduce other hazards. For example, some emit ultraviolet (UV) frequencies that can cause the same damage as the UV rays from the sun.

While laser light can damage eyesight it has become a tool used to fix vision problems. For example, laser keratotomy procedures (e.g., LASIK) use lasers to sculpture the shape of the cornea (the outer focusing element of the eye) to help with focusing. For some vision problems these surgical procedures are a popular alternatives to corrective lenses.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology, teaches a course on sensation and perception, and conducts research on visual perception. Dr. Gupta's website is at www.amit@retinasight.net and includes a description of other laser procedures.

May 8, 2003
Joe Jarvis asked "are there any tourist areas or regions similar to the Poconos?"
By Bob McMullin

The Poconos is certainly unique based on its attractions and proximity to New York City and Philadelphia. A region northeast of Pennsylvania in Massachusetts named the "Berkshires" is comparable to the Poconos and is not that far away. Both areas are popular with tourists and have many attractions for visitors.

Both the Poconos and Berkshires have scenic vistas and mountain ranges. During the three-hour drive north from the Poconos to the Berkshires you can see the Catskill Mountains from either the New York Thruway or Taconic Parkway. While in the Poconos you can visit Bushkill Falls, Dingman, or Raymonskill and in the Berkshires hike or canoe through Bartholomew's Cobble or visit one of the many state parks.

Both areas are popular destinations for outdoor activities. You can ski Camelback and Shawnee in the Poconos, or Jiminy Peak in Hancock in the Berkshires. Both areas also have many golf courses, places to fish and boat, horseback riding trails, and campgrounds.

Fine first-class resorts, lodges, and inns abound in both areas. While in the Poconos visitors stay in resorts like Caesars, Sky-Top Lodge, and Pocmont. The Cranwell Resort is a popular destination in the Berkshires that offers first-class accommodations with many recreational activities. For a more relaxed Berkshire experience one might choose the Inn at Seven Hills, which is a beautiful upscale Bed & Breakfast with gourmet dining. Another fine place to stay is the Historic Red Lion Inn in Stockbridge.

The Berkshires also offer outlet shopping similar to the Crossings in Tannersville. Berkshire museums include the Norman Rockwell, Clark Art Institute, and the Berkshire Museum. Other popular cultural attractions include Jacob's Pillow, Hancock Shaker Village, Tanglewood, and the Berkshire Scenic Railway.

If you are planning a short trip and wish to travel beyond the Poconos, try the Berkshires.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management. For more information on the Berkshires or Poconos try www.berkshires.org or www.800poconos.com.

May 15, 2003
John J. Miller asks: A few weeks ago, the Ask Marilyn column in the Parade magazine in the Sunday newspaper asked this question: A steel rail, one mile in length, secured at each end, is subjected to a temperature sufficient enough to cause the rail to expand one foot in length, how high will the resulting arch be. (The rail cannot expand in a linear direction because each end is welded, bolted, etc., in place).

The following week the answer was, surprisingly, "Over 50 feet." No explanation was given. How is the answer found?
By: Mary Ann Matras

The simplest model for solving this problem would be to assume that the rail expanded by bending exactly at the halfway point. Then the original rail and the bent rail would form two right triangles with the height being at the bend of the longer rail. One of those right triangles would have a leg of half of a mile (2640 feet) and a hypotenuse of 2640.5 feet. The height that Parade gave as over 50 feet would be the unknown but could be found using the Pythagorean theorem, (a2 + b2 = c2).

With our data we would have (2640)2 + b2 = (2640.5)2 . Then (2640.5)2 - (2640)2 = b2 and b is found by taking the square root. Solution with a calculator gives an approximate height of 51.4 feet.

Solution by this model makes a lot of assumptions about the uniform density and expansion of the rail. Other models that might have been used include using parabolas or catenaries. The solution would be similar but both of those require calculus and so they were probably not used.

Mary Ann Matras is a Professor of Mathematics. Her research interests include the use of technology in the teaching of mathematics and working with mathematics teachers.

May 22, 2003
We often hear about the importance of leisure time. What is leisure and is it really important?
By Angela Vauter

Definitions and philosophical positions about leisure time can be traced back through Greek and Roman civilizations, but with little consensus. Our contemporary view of leisure is both fascinating and confusing. Americans generally claim they want more leisure but evidence suggests maybe we don’t and while we crave it, we often waste it. Some studies indicate we have more leisure hours than ever, while others show a decline. Experts obviously still can’t agree!

It may be more useful to simply recognize that leisure is an important segment of your life. It is your opportunity to relax, be creative, nurture relationships, challenge yourself, release energy, improve skills, or simply daydream. Leisure is freedom from the requirements of “have to” and “shoulds.” It is the part not filled with work, family responsibilities, household chores, personal hygiene, or any other obligations. There is no right or correct leisure as long as our choices do not harm nor infringe on others.

Karen Heller, suggests leisure is “time wealth,” and like financial wealth it is something we shouldn't squander. We sometimes take too 'leisurely' an attitude toward planning our leisure time. Choices should complement other aspects of our life; they should be satisfying, meaningful, and enriching. Choose activities you want to do, and be careful not to select activities just because others want you to do them or because they are popular. These are not desirable motivators and you may become bored, restless, or anxious.

We have a responsibility to consciously determine our leisure. It is an aspect of our lives that we have control over, yet we often give up that opportunity. Add playful, spontaneous and uninhibited elements you might not have in other parts of your life. Don’t waste your leisure; it is your opportunity to enrich yourself and it can make your life better!

Angela Vauter is an Associate Professor of Recreation & Leisure Services Management. Her professional focus is on recreation for persons with disabilities and group behavior in the play environment.

May 29, 2003
ESU just developed a new major in Computer Security. What exactly is “Computer Security?”
By Paul Schembari

If you use a computer, you have probably heard of computer viruses and hackers. You may even have heard of computer worms and cookies. These are just part of the study of Computer Security. In general, “Computer Security” and the more encompassing term “Information Assurance” deal with the study of attacks on computers and electronic information, vulnerabilities that make computer systems easy to attack, preventative measures to protect systems, and forensic analysis of systems after they have been attacked.

As an example, let’s imagine you’re Bill Gates, and you want to send your stockbroker this confidential email message: “Sell all my shares of Microsoft.” A protective measure that you can use to keep this email secret while it travels over the Internet is called “encryption” (secret codes), like the commonly used “128-bit encryption”. Encryption uses mathematical functions to hide data. Here’s a simple “cipher” attributed to Julius Caesar: take each letter in your message and move it 3 letters to the right; so, the letter “a” is encrypted to the letter “d”, the letter “b” is encrypted to the letter “e”, etc. At the end of the alphabet, just wrap around to the beginning, so “x” becomes “a”, “y” becomes “b”, and “z” becomes “c”. Using Caesar’s cipher, our message “Sell all my shares of Microsoft” is encrypted to “vhoodoopbvkduhvriplfurvriw" and can now safely be sent over the Internet. (We also remove the spaces and capitalization because these give too much information about the structure of the words.)

If someone intercepts this encrypted message and has studied encryption, he or she will easily crack this code because of its simplicity (like a cryptogram). Modern encryption is much more complicated and, in some cases, nearly impossible to crack.

This example of protecting data is part of the study of Information Assurance.

N. Paul Schembari is a Professor of Computer Science and Computer Security, and
formerly a Professor of Mathematics. This summer he is teaching an introductory, general education course in computer security, “PC Security and Privacy”, during ESU’s Main Summer Session.

June 5, 2003
What is a learning curve?
By Rick Wesp

We often hear this term used to describe how we adjust to new situations. It is not a new concept; psychologists have used it for over a century but with some controversy. Early on, psychologists adopted the term to describe the acquisition of new skills, especially motor skills like typing. The concept also was useful in describing how animals like rats learned tasks like traversing mazes.

Researchers observed that the rate of learning a new task begins rapidly but decreases over time. The term comes from the graphical representation of the relationship between experience with a task, and response strength. For example, I could record and plot the number of functions I understood on my new digital camera. I probably would learn many of the functions the first few times I used it but on subsequent uses the number of new functions I learned would taper off. Psychologists typically depict time or experience on the horizontal axis of a graph so a plot of the number of functions I understood over time would begin with a relatively sharp incline followed by a curve toward the horizontal.

Different tasks generate different curves. A simple task learned rapidly would create a steep curve. Those unfamiliar with the concept sometimes erroneously refer to difficult tasks as having a steep learning curve (maybe associating 'steep' with difficult tasks like climbing a steep hill).

The concept is not without critics. Some argue that we see smooth learning curves only when we average performance of many individuals, suggesting that learning does not occur as smoothly as the curves predict.

Engineers employ a variation of the concept to describe the introduction of a new manufacturing plan. The manufacturing version suggests that production costs decrease over time (their curve is inverted, but similarly portrays most benefits occurring early).

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

June 12, 2003
What do you mean I didn’t outgrow this?
By Edith Miller

Yes, Restless Rita and Fidgety Phillip, you may indeed have Attention Deficit Disorder as an adult. Although Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) was considered the diagnosis of the 1990s, the condition is not a new phenomenon. The first reference to it occurred in 1904 in the British medical journal Lancet. Also, different terms for the condition are used interchangeably. Educational professionals refer to the condition as Attention Deficit Disorder, while the medical establishment uses the term Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Both sets of terms refer to a neurological condition that affects neurotransmitters in the frontal lobe area of the brain that controls such executive functions as attention, concentration and focus, planning, organizing, monitoring self-behavior, task completion, and impulse control. The condition may present with or without hyperactivity.

Until recently, it was believed that children outgrew Attention Deficit Disorder during puberty. However, we know now that the condition persists into adulthood, and the National Attention Deficit Disorder Association estimates that 3 to 5 percent of American adults has ADD. Symptoms generally appear different for adults. For example, the child’s hyperactivity may become the adult’s restlessness, and the risky behavior of the boy who skateboards down the street may manifest in the man who craves extreme sports or fast cars. Most adults with ADD don’t crawl over their desks, but they may play with pens, doodle, or tap their legs while trying to focus. In addition, they tend to procrastinate, have difficulty getting organized, have many projects going at one time, but have trouble with follow-through and completion. They may change jobs or careers frequently, demonstrate addictive behavior, and avoid following proper procedures. Although their numbers are high among the prison population, adults with ADD can be creative, out-of-the-box thinkers who excel in professions where their unique characteristics become assets.

Edith F. Miller is a Professor and Disability Services Director with expertise in learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

June 19, 2003
What is the mammoth project the Chinese are building on the Yangtze River in China?
By Wenjie Yan

Yangtze River is the longest river in China and the third largest river in the world after the Nile and the Amazon. It runs about 3900 miles from the high plateau in northwestern China to the Pacific Ocean via Shanghai. A mixed blessing, the river nourishes swathes of rice fields but every few years also floods nearby towns and cities.

In 1993, the Chinese government embarked on the mammoth project of building the officially named Three Gorges Dam inside the Hubei Province. The project will yield clean and inexpensive electricity from the world’s largest hydraulic power plant, enlarge waterways for shipping, control flooding, and create thousands of construction jobs.

However, critics argue that the human and environmental costs of this project outweigh potential benefits envisioned by the Chinese government. On June 1 of this year, 19 of the 22 sluice gates on the dam were closed and water started to fill the world’s largest reservoir, which is 385 miles east to west and more than one mile north to south. The rising water will submerge many gorgeous sceneries and hundreds of ancient cultural sites; and it will wipe out countless plants and animals indigenous to the river region. Thousands of people have already abandoned homes their families lived in for generations to relocate across China. Many more will follow before the project is completed in 2009.

Chinese officials estimate that the completed power plant with its 26 generators will produce at least 700,000 kilowatts of electricity to meet the power needs of towns and cities along the river. However, some critics predict that the accumulation of silt around the dam could seriously reduce its power producing capacity, and frequent regional earthquakes could be triggered by the dam's construction. To date, the estimated cost of the project is $25 billion.

Wenjie Yan is an Associate Professor of Communication. Last summer he visited the dam project while in China as part of a China Agricultural University and University of Colorado sponsored program.

June 26, 2003
Several readers asked: Will the addition of slot machines to horseracing tracks benefit Pennsylvanians?
By Bob McMullin

Probably yes to many, maybe no to a few. It depends on your perspective.

Horseracing tracks that have slot machines are commonly called “racinos.” Pennsylvania horseracing tracks have seen increased competition from off-track betting, and from casinos and racinos in nearby states. Slot machines are seen by the horseracing industry as a critical luring attraction to stay competitive.

The addition of slot machines in Pennsylvania may bring many winners. The horseracing community should see direct financial gain. We should see some increase in employment (e.g., racetrack employees and government compliance personnel). The riverboat gambling industry, and Native Americans with Pennsylvania ancestry and ties to gambling may see future benefit from eased gaming restrictions. Finally, state government leaders can boast about adding gaming revenues to Pennsylvania's treasury.

But how will gambling influence our communities? Citizens of the Black Hills of South Dakota believed gambling would help with urban renewal, tax revenues, and jobs. Since the adoption of gambling, many small businesses left downtown and were replaced by saloons with gambling. Police were added to handle increased crime, and a small western town lost its innocence.

For many years gambling in Atlantic City didn’t seem to improve the seaside resort. More recently they have benefited from improved infrastructure including a new convention center, high school, baseball stadium and Amtrak access. New employment opportunities developed (many of our students have been employed in various capacities in Atlantic City casinos). However, Forbes magazine recently ranked Atlantic City one of the worst for business opportunities, placing them at 148 out of the top 150 US cities.

Other potential negative factors associated with gambling addiction include the breakdown of families, bankruptcy, depression and despair, increased crime, and the associated drain on social services.

So you be the judge. Just like in gambling there are winners and losers.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management.

July 3, 2003
When did the United States declare its independence?
By Martin Wilson

American schoolboys and girls learn that the United States of America declared its independence on July 4, 1776. For those not paying attention during that particular history lesson, tomorrow's annual holiday of parades, flag waving, and fireworks serves to instruct. So why address this venerable column to a question the answer of which is common knowledge to all Americans? Because, quite simply, most Americans have it wrong.

When the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May, 1776, open conflict between the colonies and England, begun at Lexington and Concord, was already more than a year old. Yet Congress delayed in declaring independence.

In an effort to advance the debate for independence, on Friday, June 7, Virginian Richard Henry Lee rose in Congress and resolved “That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” Before a vote was taken, a committee of five was appointed to draft a formal declaration, and, as in most committees, all of the work fell to one man, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

Jefferson submitted his Declaration to Congress on Friday, June 28. On Monday, July 1, Congress took up Lee’s original resolution; the minutes from the next day, Tuesday, record that the resolution “was agreed to.” Hence, the colonies declared their independence from Great Britain on July 2.

Writing to his wife Abigail the next day, John Adams predicted that July 2 would be remembered as “the most memorable Epoca in the History of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival.” Adams missed it by two days. On July 4, Congress adopted a revised version of Jefferson’s Declaration, and that date has been celebrated ever since.

Martin Wilson is an Assistant Professor of History.

July 10, 2003
I want to deliver a toast at my best friend’s wedding, but I'm scared to death. Any advice?
By Glenn Geiser-Getz

Public speaking is a critical skill not only for family events but also office presentations, school board meetings, and political rallies. Unfortunately, this form of communication is stressful for many Americans. Some surveys show that more of us fear delivering a speech than fear insects, flying, even drowning!

It is important to understand that there are different causes for public speaking anxiety or “communication apprehension.” State-based anxiety arises when a person faces an unfamiliar communication situation. The situation’s newness and the fear of embarrassment create much of the discomfort. Trait-based anxiety affects a smaller number of people who are uncomfortable communicating in many different contexts, whether delivering a speech or talking on the telephone. Nervousness in this case may be related to deeper personal issues such as self-esteem.

A variety of classes at ESU focus on improving content, clarity, and comfort in public speaking. Assuming you have state-based anxiety, here are a few tips for the toast:
· Remember that most people get nervous in this situation.
· Audiences generally appreciate the effort involved in giving a speech; they want you to succeed.
· A dry mouth, flushed face, and shaking voice are all side effects of your body preparing for action. Look at these feelings as “excitement” rather than “fear” and use the extra energy to increase your enthusiasm.
· Imagine you are delivering your toast only to the bride and groom. Make an effort to look around the room, but pretend you are really just talking with those two people on their special day.
· Choose material you are comfortable with, preferably a personal story. Stories work well for wedding toasts because audiences find them both meaningful and memorable. After telling the story, explain what you think it means for the new couple and wish them a happy future filled with blessings.

Glenn Geiser-Getz is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Communication Studies.

July 17, 2003
What are the appropriate uses of the words “affect” and “effect”?
By Kim McKay

The trouble with the two words “affect” and “effect” comes from their being nearly indistinguishable in casual speech. In most cases, a simple reminder of their primary parts of speech will resolve any quandary.

“Affect” is a verb, often meaning “move,” as it does in this sentence: The last chapter of that handbook always affects readers that way. Like other verbs, “affect” has a past form, “affected,” and a progressive form, “affecting.” In the following sentences, it is closer in meaning to “influence”: Studying grammar is affecting my sense of humor. I hope you are not similarly affected.

“Effect” is a noun, usually meaning “result.” Like other nouns, it often follows an article, as it does in this sentence: The effect is obvious. Other determiners frequently introduce the plural form: She recognized several curious effects on her balance following each lesson.

We might think of the letter “a” in “act on” to recall the verb “affect.” Conversely, we might link the letter “e” in “evidence” to the first letter in the noun “effect.” Since the auxiliary verb “will” forms a logical future tense when used with a verb, it will sound fine with “affect,” as it does here: The question she asked will affect me for the rest of the day. If we try to use it where a noun is required, we end up with nonsense: Her answer, on the other hand, had no *will* effect on me.

Two other uses, however, run counter to the guidance just provided. First, “effect” is, although infrequently, also a verb, one meaning “to bring about,” as in “We hope to effect great changes in the way grammar is taught.” Then there’s the quite rare use of “affect” as a noun meaning “emotion” or “state of being,” as in “Linguists trace the powerful affects often linked to overexposure to strict grammar rules.”

Most of the time, though, the dynamic duo adheres firmly to the primary parts of speech as first described.

Kim McKay, Associate Professor of English, teaches courses in grammar, linguistics, and twentieth-century literature.

July 24, 2003
What is your favorite summer chicken recipe?
By Bill Burt

Most think of barbeque when they think summer chicken. The barbecue is an ancient practice of culinary skill. Today we have two basic types of barbecued chicken (ribs, pork butt, flank steak, sirloin, etc), wet and dry.

The easy wet barbecue involves grilling chicken at moderate to high heat for about 45 minutes and then slathering it with your favorite sauce.

With dry rubs a variety of ground spices that can include cumin, coriander, brown sugar, salt, pepper, chilies of all types, garlic powder, onion powder or other favorite spices are rubbed into the flesh of the meat. After the meat sits overnight in the fridge to absorb this myriad of flavors it is cooked over slow heat for several hours until tender and spicy. It can be slathered with BBQ sauce.

Personally, I like barbecued chicken but it takes too long and is very messy; I enjoy it at someone else's party. My favorite summer chicken recipe is much simpler and very good. I have a cylindrical Weber charcoal smoker/cooker that I use to make a delicious, juicy and tender chicken. Set the smoker up and place two broiler chickens on the top rack over the water. Stuff each one with a half head of fresh garlic, two fresh lemons quartered and a few sprigs of fresh rosemary. Rub the outside of each with a good olive oil and season with salt and pepper. I add some kind of wet hardwood (hickory, apple, pear, maple -- not pine) to the charcoal right at the start and keep adding throughout the cooking period of about 1 hour (internal temperature of about 165 F).

The results are two tender, flavorful, juicy, beautifully bronzed, smoked chickens that are so delicious. I serve them with sides of my southwestern potato salad and my favorite New England coleslaw. And of course a few cold ones.

William Burt is an Associate Professor of Hotel Restaurant and Tourism Management, and will be happy to answer questions about food science, ethnic dishes, the use of cooking utensils, and related issues.

July 31, 2003
I’ve heard that people become more violent when it's hot. Is that true?
By Joe Miele

There is no shortage of empirical studies linking excessive heat and violent action. Aggression researcher Craig Anderson recently concluded that over 250 years of correlational studies provides clear evidence that rates of violent crimes increase during the hottest times of the year and are higher in regions with hotter climates.

The real question is, does excessive heat directly cause people to be more violent, or do other factors explain the heat-violence connection? For example, people are outside more in the summer perhaps increasing the opportunity for conflicts. Also, the change in routine that normally accompanies summer may account for increased violence. However, despite numerous studies designed to examine these and other possible factors, the “heat hypothesis” proposed by leading social psychologist, Leonard Berkowitz, has proven difficult to unseat. Simply put, when it’s hot, people are uncomfortable and cranky; they develop hostile thoughts and feelings, which lead to increased aggression in many settings.

Craig Anderson, a leading social scientist, is examining how excessive heat may alter perceptions of others in an ongoing social exchange. Perhaps people in hot conditions (with an increase in heart rate) misattribute their physiological arousal to the social interaction. Or, maybe heat temporarily “cooks” the processes of mind that normally inhibits aggression.

The importance of this work is staggering. Anderson and his colleagues estimated the effect of global warming on murders and assaults in the United States. They predict a 2 degree Fahrenheit increase in average temperature will result in an additional 24,000 murders and assaults per year!

Right now, schools, prisons and workplaces are trying to reduce or eliminate violence. Field research in these settings may show that the cost of temperature control is justified by the benefits of lower incarceration costs, less property damage, and increased productivity.

Joe Miele is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

August 7, 2003
Alyce Strapec asked, "In the movie A Beautiful Mind what was the meaning of the Princeton professors placing their pens on the table in front of John Nash?"
By Rick Wesp

A Beautiful Mind is based upon the life of John Nash. Nash completed his doctorate in Mathematics in the early 1950's at Princeton. His work on game theory, including his doctoral dissertation, was recognized with the awarding of the Nobel Prize in economics in 1994.

After completing his degree at Princeton he took a position at MIT until he resigned in 1959. His resignation was prompted by what Nash refers to as a "change from scientific rationality of thinking into the delusional thinking of persons who are psychiatrically diagnosed as schizophrenic." He later returned to Princeton.

The movie includes a moving scene in which Princeton faculty approached Nash, who was sitting alone in a cafeteria, and placed their pens on his table. The ritual portrayed in the movie scene is intended to suggest that Nash's colleagues recognized his intellectual accomplishments.

According to Princeton's web site (www.princeton.edu/mudd/news/faq/topics/nash), the ritual shown in the movie is fictional. The movie also shows Nash making an acceptance speech for his Nobel Prize. The Princeton site points out that Nash never made an acceptance speech because the Noble Foundation does not afford Nobel Laureates that opportunity.

The movie was not presented as an accurate biography – it was "inspired" by the life of Nash and the writers and directors of the movie took significant artistic license. The movie included other discrepancies. Nash's symptoms and treatment may have differed from those shown in the movie. For example, Nash experienced auditory but not the visual hallucinations depicted in the film. Also, some suggest that the movie avoided several controversial elements of Nash's personality.

Those interested in a more accurate portrayal of Nash and his work can find out more about him on the web including on the Nobel Foundation website (www.nobel.se). The Oscar-winning movie is available on video.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

August 14, 2003
How does the 12th century murder of Thomas Becket relate to today’s scandals in the Catholic Church?
By Edith Miller

When Henry II assumed the English throne, most trials were determined by ordeal or combat, there was no uniform application of punishment, and canon law was separate from civil courts. The church’s ecclesiastical tribunal system had been established to judge members of the clergy or monastic orders who broke the law. However, punishment was considerably more lenient than civil penalties, and this less punitive system was available to any male who could recite six Bible verses. In practice, wealthy men, who knew the Biblical verses, claimed the right to trial under the church system, while the uneducated poor faced harsher judgment.

Because of his desire to establish a standardized legal system that included trial by peers, Henry II attempted to abolish the church’s system. When Thomas Becket served Henry as chancellor, he agreed with the king’s plans. However, when he became Archbishop of Canterbury, he changed his mind, believing that it was his responsibility to protect the church and its power from the incursion of the crown. Becket assumed an uncompromising position, excommunicating those who disagreed with him.

Even the Pope could not negotiate a lasting peace between these two former friends. In 1170, four knights crossed the English Channel from Henry’s Christmas court in Normandy and rode to Canterbury where they found and murdered Becket. They had responded to the rage of King Henry following news of another defiance by Becket.

In the uproar following Becket’s death and sainthood, King Henry’s popularity and honor were diminished, and he was forced to do penance at Becket’s tomb. He never brought the church under the judicial system he created. Perhaps if Henry had prevailed and clergy had been made answerable to civil law from the 12th century on, those priests who molested children in the 20th century might not have hidden within the church hierarchy for so long.

Edith F. Miller is a Professor and Disability Services Coordinator with research interests in medieval life and literature.

August 21, 2003
Harriet Feitelberg asked, "I recently read a novel about ancient China in which the heroine had her feet bound as a child. What was the origin and significance of this custom?"
By Neil Hogan

Chinese society first adopted the practice of foot-binding in the ninth or tenth centuries C.E. It probably originated at the imperial court, but soon spread to the gentry class and every peasant woman by the Yuam Dynasty (1271-1368 C.E.). Not all Chinese women experienced this very painful process. Among ethnic minorities like the Hakka and the Manchus it was rejected and was less common in southern provinces such as Hunan and Szechwan. One historian estimates that by the nineteenth century between 50 and 80 percent of Chinese women had bound feet.

Foot-binding had no religious significance. Chinese men found that women’s tiny bound feet were highly erotic. Women with normal-sized feet had poor marriage prospects hence mothers began the process of foot-binding when their daughters were two. A cloth was tightly wrapped around the toes, except the largest, so that the toes were bent back to the heels and the arch was broken. The effect desired was the so-called lily foot only three or four inches long, which was highly pleasing to men.

Feminists, reformers and Christian missionaries all began to attack the practice at the end of the nineteenth century. Not only was foot-binding painful, but it severely limited women’s role outside the home. The process was formally outlawed by the empress, Cixi, in 1902 and disappeared rapidly in the eastern cities, but it continued well into the 1920s in many rural areas. By the time the Communists came to power in China in 1949 foot-binding had almost completely ended as a misery in Chinese women’s lives.

Neil Hogan is a Professor of History. Among his specialties are China, and Women in History.

August 28, 2003
Why is it so hard for me to make a basket at the carnival basketball games?
By Rick Wesp

Carnival games, including the basketball game, are more difficult than they look by design. Some rely on distortions of perception and others on basic physical constraints of the games.

The basketball game is arranged so that it appears to be easy. The hoop is usually low and the shooting distance is relatively short and many players are surprised when they do not make these "simple" baskets. Both psychological and physical factors contribute to the difficulty. Psychological factors that might influence your abilities include the misperception of your skill level and the added anxiety of the public setting.

Physical factors associated with the size of the ball and hoop are probably more imposing. Most people believe the standard basketball hoop is only a bit larger than the ball but it actually is double the size; the carnival basket is not much larger than the ball. Because of the difference in size, players of real basketball can use the backboard to make easier bank shots. The carnival game requires that your shot is nothing but net.

Players don't see this size difference. Our lower and closer view of the carnival basket allows for easier comparison of the relative size than does our distant view on a basketball court. However, since most of us believe that the standard basketball hoop is only slightly larger than the ball, what we see at the carnival does not seem to be out of the ordinary.

So why do we think the basketball hoop is so close in size to the ball? Our research at ESU has shown that size estimates are influenced by how we have used objects in the past. We suspect that people see a basketball hoop as only slightly larger than the ball because it is difficult to make a basket.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology. He has team-taught a course on the Psychology and Physics of Amusement Parks.

September 4, 2003
Can you explain the discipline procedure called time out?
By Rick Wesp

Time out is a contracted version of the term “time-out from positive reinforcement.” The time-out procedure is technically a form of punishment that is effective but often misused.

Like other punishment procedures, time out serves to decrease a behavior. As a consequence for a "bad" behavior we remove an individual from a reinforcing environment to one that is less reinforcing. Theoretically, the individual will associate the undesirable behavior with this loss of pleasurable activities we take them from, making that behavior less likely in the future. For example, as a consequence for fighting we remove a child from a playroom with other children to a room with no toys or playmates.

To work effectively, punishment must occur immediately, intensely, and every time. In the fighting example above, the child would have to be removed from the playroom as soon as the fighting started, the room we moved the child to would have to be less pleasant for him, and we would have to catch every instance of fighting.

Time-out often is misapplied. One problem is that what you and the person who is timed-out think are unpleasant may be very different; in the above example the child might actually enjoy the special attention given during removal and fight more to get that attention. Some use long timeout periods assuming they are more punishing. Actually, time-out periods should be relatively short to quickly provide another opportunity to either behave appropriately or experience another time-out.

There are better ways to change behavior. For instance, by reinforcing behavior we want we leave little time for “bad” behavior. When I was a child my mother effectively used this procedure when we went shopping. She would send me looking for items she needed – I felt good about helping and it left less time for me to get into trouble.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

September 11, 2003
Bruce MacGowan of Mt. Pocono asks: “I took an IQ test by watching a TV show. Are the results accurate?”
By Paul Bartoli

IQ stands for intelligence quotient. It is a number that represents intelligence based on a given test. Since the definition of intelligence is still highly debated, many IQ tests are actually measuring different things in a person. Here is where the problems start.

Good tests have many essential commonalities. Some of these are:

· Reliability, or consistently measuring in the same way
· Validity, or how well the test measures what is of interest
· Norms, or a standard with which the test results can be compared

Let’s say you take an IQ test I make up, and do very poorly by your estimation. Some problems could be that I created the test but never tried it out (reliability problems) and was using it to measure “street intelligence” (validity) for drug dealers (norms). You are probably mismatched and being tested for something different than you thought with an incomplete test! Unless you were made aware of these three critical pieces of information, it would be unwise to draw large life conclusions from your results.

Most television programs and internet sites venturing into the area of IQ assessment begin with a standard disclaimer stating that the show and the results are for entertainment purposes only. That alone clues us to the natural reliability, validity, and standardization problems. Have fun with your exposure to IQ testing, but unless these issues and a definition of what is being measured is discussed in clear, everyday language it is likely that you should not take the results too seriously.

Paul Bartoli is an Assistant Professor of Psychology and teaches coursework including Psychological Assessment and Measurement.

September 18, 2003
Why does life seem so fast-paced?
By Rob McKenzie

One reason might have to do with the role of television in our lives. The latest research shows that Americans watch television an average of 7 hours a day. That’s almost a third of the day. By comparison, television watching in France, Sweden and the UK amounts to an average of just over 3 hours a day. With such a large portion of the day being occupied by television watching here in the US, the time left for other activities like eating, traveling, or just talking with people becomes very squeezed.

But the form of television—the look and feel of it—also accelerates the pace of our lives. The form of television is a product of the way in which television is funded, which in the US for most television stations is through advertising. In other countries, television is often funded through an annual license fee that television watchers pay to the government, which then allocates money to television stations. When advertising funds television programming, it leaves less time for the actual programming. For example, during prime time (8-11pm) in the US, the average half hour has 12 minutes of advertising and 18 minutes of programming. This ratio effectively shortens and speeds up the sitcom, drama, reality show, or whatever the programming is. In the case of news programming, stories about important events are cut to a mere 15, 30 or 60 seconds to make room for advertising. It is possible to conclude from this scenario that the quick pace of television programming affects the pace of life much the same as a metronome affects a pianist’s pace of play—in other words, as television programming speeds up, so inevitably does the pace of life.

Rob McKenzie is a Professor of Communication Studies and currently conducting research for a book he is writing called Comparing Media from Around the World.

September 25, 2003
What is "universal design"?
By Julie Walton

If you use elevators, ramps, automatic doors, or watch news with captioning, e-mail, or text message on your cell phone, you are benefiting from the concept of universal design. In the 1970’s, Ron Mace and his contemporaries at the Center for Universal Design defined the term and principle components of this concept. In 1985, Mace wrote “Universal design is simply a way of designing a building or facility, at little or no extra cost, so that it is both attractive and functional for all people, disabled or not.”

Universal design was developed to assist not only individuals with disabilities but also those with a wide variety of different needs. The use of universal design concepts in architecture, environment and product design provide a large number of people with access to places and things regardless of their abilities.

From this initial concept of universal design has come the trend to provide education to a wide variety of individuals with different needs by implementing universal curriculum design. Universal curriculum design addresses the issues of providing an opportunity for individuals with diverse learning needs to obtain an education. Educators who use universal curriculum design will find that this concept benefits not only students with disabilities but also students who have diverse cultural backgrounds, different learning styles, various age groups, and those with language barriers.

Julianne Walton is an Associate Professor in the Department of Academic Enrichment and Learning. She and Dr. Lydia Block will speak about these issues at a free public forum on Sunday, September 28, 2003 from 6 - 9 PM in ESU's Keystone Room. The forum is co-sponsored by ESU and the Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers for Technology Grant Consortium.

October 2, 2003
Allen Skoranski of East Stroudsburg asks: “I'm interested in how batteries work. If I pry one open to see the insides, will I really get burned by battery acid?”
By Michael Doherty

Battery makers select among dozens of materials to meet various performance needs. The materials in a high-current, rechargeable automotive battery are among the most dangerous. They include poisonous lead metal and its compounds, and a sulfuric acid electrolyte that is sufficiently strong and concentrated to cause rapid horrible chemical burns to skin and eyes. This gives rise to the often-stated concern about “battery acid.”
Most batteries have no acid. For example, alkaline batteries for toys and electronics use bases, not acids. Still, all batteries contain energetically reactive substances, and many of these can burn skin or eyes. Furthermore, many batteries contain poisonous materials such as compounds of cadmium, mercury, or nickel. Recycling these is an environmental necessity.

Another danger arises if tampering undermines the design of batteries. All batteries contain two kinds of substances, one that undergoes oxidation at an “anode,” and one that undergoes reduction at a “cathode.” These can be solids, such as the zinc can of a flashlight battery, or solutions or pastes that surround a carbon or metal electrode. Electrons have a tendency to move from the anode, which bears a negative charge, to the positively charged cathode. The reaction proceeds only when both terminals are connected (usually through the device you are powering), allowing the charge to circulate. The design of the battery involves use of an “electrolyte” in the space between the oxidant and reductant. The electrolyte is a liquid or dissolved substance such as sodium chloride (table salt) that can carry electrical current. Tampering with a battery could cause the oxidant and reductant to directly contact one another, without any intervening electrolyte. They could react and release their energy instantly, and become dangerously hot, possibly bursting open or burning your hands.

Please learn about batteries safely in the library or on the web. Never pry them open.

Michael Doherty is a Professor of Chemistry interested in chemical instrumentation.

October 9, 2003
What exactly is a hermaphrodite and are there really people like that?
By Mollie Whalen

Hermaphroditus was a Greek deity who had both male and female characteristics. The word hermaphrodite was formerly used to apply to children born with mixed sexual features. However, since very few children are born with fully developed features of both sexes, the term pseudohermaphrodite was more often used.

Today, scientists understand there are multiple factors that go into the determination of human biological sex, including chromosomal configuration, the presence or absence of gonads that produce sex hormones, and the body’s capacity to use and respond to hormones. We also acknowledge the variations that can occur within certain ranges along each of these dimensions.

Sex chromosome patterns are not limited to XX (female) or XY (male). They can include XXX, XYY, XO, and others. Moreover, genital size and appearance can vary greatly among individuals. At times it may be difficult for doctors or parents to determine whether a given child is more female-like or male-like, and thus assigning one of two sexes to the child is problematic. These children today are termed intersexed. They may have “ambiguous” genitalia—not clearly male or female. They may have chromosomal patterns that are misaligned with the appearance of their genitals.

In most cases, these anomalies in sexual or genital configuration are not life threatening. However, they do seem to threaten our understanding of the social order, the idea that there are males and females and nothing else. In the case of intersexed children, physicians, in consultation with other medical specialists, decide which sex category the child best fits. Often surgery is deemed necessary to help the child more closely fit the designated category.

What does that mean for the child who was surgically forced into a particular sex category? We are just beginning to hear from intersexed adults who are speaking out and questioning what was done to them as children without their knowledge or consent.

Mollie Whalen is a Professor and Director of Women's Studies and the university's Women's Center.

October 16, 2003
Lucy Freck of Gilbert asks: “Is there a correlation between sleep disorders, especially night terrors, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Is a sleep disorder an indicator of ADHD and/or mimic ADHD?”
By Joe Miele

Although, no evidence indicates night terrors, specifically, are linked to ADHD, studies indicate children diagnosed with ADHD are more likely to have sleeping difficulties than children without this disorder. There are three main reasons for this relationship:

Medication. Grade school children diagnosed with ADHD and taking stimulant medication have greater difficulty falling asleep, more frequent waking in the night, and more difficulty with morning activities, than untreated children with ADHD. These findings indicate that monitoring sleep-related behaviors and providing concurrent therapies for sleep-related disturbances would be beneficial for many families with ADHD children who are taking stimulant medication.

Co-existing mental disorders. A dual diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is associated with insomnia in school-aged children with ADHD. In older youths (aged 14-15 years) diagnosed with ADHD, a concurrent diagnosis of anxiety and/or behavioral disorder is associated with sleeping difficulties. And finally, in older boys (13-16 yrs of age) diagnosed with ADHD in childhood who are receiving stimulant medication, depressive symptoms contribute significantly to the degree of sleep disturbance when controlling for ADHD diagnosis and medication treatment.

Co-existing sleep disorders. In response to your second question Lucy, not only can certain sleep disturbance indicate the presence of ADHD, the reverse is also true. For instance, sleep-related involuntary movements like periodic limb movement (PLM) and restless leg syndrome are four times more likely to be observed in children diagnosed with ADHD. The increased presence of these sleep disorders is unrelated to medication or co-existing mental disorders.

Joe Miele is an Associate Professor of Psychology

October 23, 2003
Kyle Wilson of Stroudsburg asks “How do you figure out slugging percentage and who has the highest in a season?”
By John M. Hauth

Slugging percentage or “SLG” is a measure of the power of a baseball hitter. To calculate SLG, you must first determine the player’s “total bases” and “at bats”. The slugging percentage is calculated by dividing the total bases by the at bats. Before we go on, let’s clarify how we count “total bases” and what constitutes an “at bat.”

Total bases is the number of bases a player gains with hits only. The hits are weighted by 1 for a single, 2 for a double, 3 for a triple and 4 for a home run.

At bats (AB) is a common statistic in baseball. It is used to calculate batting average and slugging percentage. A ballplayer is said to have had an “at bat” every time he comes to the plate except:
· a base on balls (BB)
· hit by a pitched ball (HBP)
· a sacrifice bunt or sacrifice fly
· base due to interference or obstruction
· inning ends while still batting.

For example, in 1920, Babe Ruth had 458 at bats and 172 hits including 73 singles, 36 doubles, 9 triples and 54 home runs [(73 X 1) + (36 X 2) + (9 X 3) + (54 X 4) = 388 total bases].
· Ruth’s 1920 SLG = 388/458 or .847

Ruth’s single season slugging percentage of .847 was a major league record for 81 years (his 54 home runs in 1920 broke his own record of 29 with the Boston Red Sox). Barry Bonds shattered Ruth’s SLG with an incredible season in 2001. What was Bonds’ slugging percentage in 2001? Bonds’ At bats (AB) = 476, and Total Hits = 156 (2B = 32, 3B = 2, HR = 73). Note: To calculate total bases you must first solve for the number of singles Bonds hit. The answer is located below. Good luck!

John Hauth is an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science. Answer: .863

October 30, 2003
Alyce Strapec asked "Three ounces of dark chocolate a day might reduce blood pressure - so I read in 8/27/03 article in the Pocono Record. That's a lot of chocolate. How much cocoa powder would equal 3 oz. of dark chocolate?"
By Don Cummings

The newspaper article was probably prompted by a recent research study that reported a slight decrease in systolic blood pressure (5 mm/Hg) of 6 adults after they ingested 100 grams of dark chocolate a day for 14 consecutive days. The chocolate bars contained 500 milligrams of polyphenols and were 480 calories. Dark chocolate contains approximately 70% cocoa, while milk chocolate contains only 25% cocoa. There is about 60 grams of cocoa in 3 oz. (85 g) of dark chocolate and 1 Tbsp of cocoa powder weighs 5 grams. Therefore you would need to ingest 12 Tbsp (¾ cup) of cocoa powder to get the equivalent in 3 oz. of dark chocolate.

Eating chocolate for a healthy blood pressure and heart is a dream come true, but don’t add it as a regular medicinal supplement to your diet just yet. Research studies on consuming foods that contain compounds known as polyphenol flavonoids for heart and vessel health are inconclusive and controversial.

Polyphenol flavonoids have been shown in some studies to “neutralize” damaging molecules (free radicals) in the body, prevent blood clotting, inhibit constriction and induce dilation of blood vessels, and act as an anti-inflammatory agent. These compounds are found at varying levels in some fruits, vegetables, red wine, and cocoa.

There is also research reported that cocoa taken with milk or milk chocolate negates some of the positive effects seen with polyphenols. Also, the possible benefits may be negated by the amount of fat and calories that are usually in chocolate that may lead to conditions such as high cholesterol and obesity that are cardiovascular risks. In light of the extent of current research on the health benefits of chocolate, I would recommend enjoying the confection in moderation for it’s culinary qualities and refrain from using it as a regular supplement to a diet for possible medicinal benefits.

Donald M. Cummings is an Associate Professor and Director of the Cardiac Rehabilitation & Exercise Science Program in the Department of Movement Studies and Exercise Science.

November 6, 2003
Lisa Gentile asked, "are there any nice inns and/or restaurants in Maine?"
By Robert McMullin

It is interesting that you ask that question since recently one of our faculty members left and opened up an inn in Buckfield, ME. Professor Russell Clark converted an 1800’s house into an inn with a forty-seat restaurant, bar, and several sleeping rooms.

The Buckfield Inn is decorated in antiques and offers a New England charm. The dinner menu consists of several appetizers (Crepes David, Baked Brie en Croute, Steamed Mussels, and Marinated Artichoke Hearts), and a choice of either Soup de Jour or Baked Onion Soup Gratin. Entrees include Pasta in Alfredo Sauce, Shrimp in Garlic Sauce, Prime Rib Eye, Steak au Poivre, and Chicken with Crème Cheese and Shallot Sauce. Thursday is Pasta night, and a creative brunch is served on Sunday.

A delightful local playhouse called the Oddfellow Theater (www.oddfellow.com) is in walking distance from the Inn. The Inn has a pre-theater menu, which includes an appetizer, salad, and entrée. The fixed-price dinner includes post-play dessert and coffee.

There are some interesting areas to visit in Buckfield and its surrounding area. Tiltons Market has just about anything you may need and is a short walk from the Buckfield Inn. Nearby is the Buckfield Mall, and seeing is believing?!! Drive a bit to the east to Maine's scenic coast. Freeport is an hour away, and offers various shopping opportunities including the LL Bean Store -- don’t miss the better discounts at LL Bean's Factory Store. Mt. Washington, NH is about two hours away in the other direction.

The Buckfield Inn is located on 60 Turner Street, Buckfield, ME (call 207-336-2220). The drive from the Poconos is nearly eight hours. Mapquest (www.mapquest.com) provides detailed directions.

If you have a long weekend or have time to relax, I would recommend the Buckfield Inn for good food, spirits, and relaxation.

Robert A. McMullin is a Professor of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management.

November 13, 2003
Why the fuss and hullabaloo about sport metaphors?
Ronald J. Meyers

Referring to his decisive licking by Mayor John F. Street in the 2003 Philadelphia Mayoral Election, challenger Sam Katz offered his Monday-morning quarterback assessment: "The ball bounced in a different way, and Mayor Street was able to pick it up and take advantage. That's the way politics is. Anyone who is in this game, knows how it's played."

The allusion to sport is certainly not unusual; sport metaphors play a significant role in our thought processes and conversation. The games we play enrich our quotidian lives, and the notion of life itself as a game--even a great game-- has some resonance as when we speak of "goals" or "scoring" or "teamwork" or "par for the course," and "knockout."

Johan Huizinga, in his classic study Homo Ludens (Man the Player) proposed that sport is a testing field---even a playground, from the Latin campus (an etymological curiosity perhaps not completely lost on our students and their faculty). Plato referred to the consecration of the sacred and beautiful in play--in which performers and spectators mutually participate in and share the experience.

In the final analysis, however, the outcome of the contest or game is distinctively influenced by luck or fate. In his recent scholarly, popular study, Something for Nothing, Luck in America, Jackson Lears notes the length to which people go to secure good luck, which include superstitions and charms, and calling on the services of shamans and Voodoo priests.

Like the blind boy-God Cupid, casting confusion in every direction, Lady Justice also is blind (and presumably therefore impartial); yet she holds in her hand scales which determine victory and defeat, confirming just how much the outcome of the game depends upon the unpredictable.

But certainly of equal importance is what you make of the opportunities set before you when you get the bounce.

Ronald J. Meyers, Professor of English, teaches, among other courses, Literature of Sport and Games, and Sports Writing. His book on the sport of love, Waiting for Godiva, is available as an ebook, on-line, or at the University Store.

November 20, 2003
Why do lady beetles congregate inside homes during fall months?
By Matt Wallace

There is no reason for alarm. Lady beetles (order Coleoptera, family Coccinellidae), also known as ladybird beetles or ladybugs, are harmless insects; they do not pass disease or infest clothing, food, or wood.

Like many animals, the lady beetles are trying to find a sheltered area to spend the winter. Unfortunately, this sometimes results in large aggregations of beetles in people’s houses, especially on windows, walls, light fixtures, and other indoor structures. Apparently, brightly illuminated structures exposed to light are especially attractive to the lady beetles. Therefore, if your house is protected by shade, you are less likely to have lady beetle visitors!

Cleaning up these beetles from your house can be messy. Some species can expel their own blood through their leg joints when threatened and these fluids can leave nasty stains on your carpet or walls. Therefore, take extreme care when removing the beetles mechanically. Some people have been successful in vacuuming up the insects and then releasing them outside. The most successful preventive measure is to seal up any cracks or holes where the lady beetles could gain access into your home.

Insecticides are not recommended for a number of reasons. Any lady beetles concealed from your view which may have been killed by residual chemicals will serve as food for more destructive insects. Secondly, most species of ladybugs are predators, and thus are extremely beneficial in the natural environment by suppressing the numbers of other pest insects such as aphids.

Matthew S. Wallace is an Assistant Professor of Biology. He is interested in the biology, taxonomy, and systematics (classification) of the true bugs and “hoppers,” or, the order Hemiptera.

November 27, 2003
No articles - Thanksgiving

December 4, 2003
Is mandatory volunteerism a good thing?
By Rick Wesp

An editorial in this paper a few weeks back offered the opinion that mandatory volunteerism at the state universities is not a good idea because students are "stretched too far." The opinion is valid; students are overcommitted. The proposal may be suspect for other reasons found in the psychological research literature.

Motivational theorists differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation includes external control factors like money or treats. For example, the editorial suggested providing discount tuition as incentive. Intrinsic motivation includes more internally based drives like self-satisfaction. We typically think of volunteerism as an intrinsically motivated act; we volunteer because we feel good about helping others.

The problem with mandatory volunteerism (an obvious oxymoron) is that extrinsic rewards tend to undermine the effectiveness of intrinsic rewards. For example, researchers have shown that preschoolers who work for an extrinsic award may become less interested in an activity they used to do because of intrinsic motivation. The same has been shown in adult workers when extrinsic rewards are seen as the proverbial stick instead of as feedback about the quality of their work.

We find the same is true with volunteerism. Recently researchers at the University of Northern Colorado evaluated the influence of imposing volunteerism requirements on college students. Motivation for volunteering in the future by those with a strong initial commitment to volunteer was not stifled by the requirement. However, for the majority of students who were not as committed or felt coerced into volunteering, the experience appeared to further reduce their future commitment to volunteer.

Proposed mandatory volunteerism may benefit local agencies in the short run but could reduce the likelihood of our students becoming supportive volunteers in the future. We could provide students incentives to work for local agencies but research suggests we not call that volunteerism.

Rick Wesp is an Associate Professor of Psychology.

December 11, 2003
I saw an advertisement for quick weight loss with hypnosis. Can it work?
By Paul Bartoli

Useful as a technique in psychotherapy, hypnosis often is misunderstood. The hypnotic state narrows attention and increases suggestibility. Hypnosis can help with habit change, motivation level, pain control, and many similar issues. It cannot control your mind, make you do anything greatly unusual for you, effect magical changes, or give you superhuman abilities.

Most people can be hypnotized to some degree and many are excellent candidates for hypnotherapy. Effective hypnotherapy as a form of treatment involves learning the techniques from a credentialed professional and applying them daily to assist you in reaching your goals. In general the more susceptible you are, the greater the use hypnosis may be in your life. Professionals can determine your degree of hypnotizability using tests like the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility.

Weight control is a tremendous struggle for many. All effective weight control techniques involve an understanding and maintenance of nutritional input and exercise output. Weight management usually requires a significant lifestyle change in diet and exercise.

The most commonly used therapeutic programs for weight control involve cognitive-behavioral techniques and social support systems. Research has compared short-term (9 week) behavioral management weight loss programs with and without hypnosis. With hypnosis, more hypnotizable participants achieved greater changes, and were better able to continue weight loss through a 2-year follow-up. The study shows that when used appropriately, hypnosis can be an effective part of an overall weight management program.

There are cautions, however. As with all treatments, beware of unlicensed and unprofessional practices. In October of 2003 the New Jersey Attorney General’s office filed suit against a widely advertised group hypnosis weight loss program that the suit claimed attracted participants in order to sell nutritional supplements rather than apply hypnotherapy. If claims are made of unrealistic quick weight loss, they are probably too good to be true.

Paul Bartoli is an Assistant Professor of Psychology with interests in counseling and development. He has a local private counseling practice.

December 18, 2003
Bernard Vitek asks "what is the origin of purses?"
By Angela Vauter

The next time you leave your home, will you take your purse with you? You may think the answer is based on gender – women will and men will not. But not so fast; a pocket is actually a variation of a purse. History shows that both genders have carried or not carried a purse at various times throughout the centuries.

The first formal written reference to the purse or pouch appeared in the 14th century. At that time, a purse was a small, cloth bag. It was tied around the waist on the outside of one’s clothing to carry money. This location provided easy access for one’s money. Unfortunately, it was also easy for thieves to steal these small purses, inspiring an adjustment. The purse was simply moved to the inside of the clothing, where it was safe from robbers. With few other changes, it became a pocket. Next, the pocket was sewn into clothing, eliminating the need for any separate appendage. This more comfortable method to transport money became less desirable as clothing became more fitted, bringing the use of a separate bag again into vogue. Around the 19th century, the term handbag was coined to describe these bags.

Travel and work outside the home created the need for a bag for important items. In earlier times men ventured farther and more frequently from the home than women, so they were the purse carriers. When women began using purses, however, an aesthetic aspect was added to the purse’s functionality. Elaborate decorating developed, and a purse’s appearance became a status symbol. Perhaps the decrease in purse-carrying men can be attributed to these aesthetic changes?

Whether you always carry a purse, or wouldn’t be caught dead with one, be assured that nowadays purses serve many purposes and take many forms – including a pocket!

Angela Vauter is an Associate Professor of Recreation & Leisure Services Management. You can find more on purses at www.henriettashandbags.com.